History of water polo

The history of water polo as a team sport began in mid 19th-century England and Scotland, where water sports were a feature of county fairs and festivals.[1][2]

Development of the game

William Wilson, Scottish aquatics pioneer and originator of the first rules of water polo.

The rules of water polo were originally developed in the mid-nineteenth century in Great Britain by William Wilson.

The game originated as a form of rugby football played in rivers and lakes in England and Scotland with a ball constructed of Indian rubber, probably from the 1850s onwards. This ‘water rugby’ came to be called ‘water polo’ based on the English pronunciation of the Balti (Tibetan language of Kashmir) word pulu[3][4], which means ‘ball’. Early play allowed brute strength, wrestling and holding opposing players underwater to recover the ball; the goalie stood outside the playing area and defended the goal by jumping in on any opponent attempting to score by placing the ball on the deck.

In the first edition (1893) of their book ‘Swimming’, Archibald Sinclair and William Henry state “On May 12, 1870, a committee was appointed by the Swimming Association, then known as the London Swimming Association, to draw up a code of rules for the management of the game of ‘football in the water.’ ” This indicates that forms of the sport we now call ‘water polo’ existed before the current name was in common use. Other names included ‘water base ball’ and (more frequently) ‘aquatic football’. For example, in the South Eastern Gazette (in Kent; now closed), on Tues 28th July 1857, it says “An aquatic foot-ball match is fixed for to-morrow, Wednesday”.

One of the earliest recorded games of a sport called ‘water polo’ occurred at the Crystal Palace (London), on 15th September 1873. It was reported in the Morning Post (now closed) and The Standard (later London Evening Standard). The weather was “cold and raw” according the Penny Illustrated News. It was held in the boating lake that still exists. It was part of the 4th Open Air Fete of the London Swimming Club (founded in 1859).

The modern game also developed in Scotland in the late 19th century, when the first games of water polo were played at the Arlington Baths Club in Glasgow (the Club was founded in 1870, and still exists today). In 1886, the Scottish Amateur Swimming Association (Western) held their first championship, the West Cup. West of Scotland beat South Side 1-0. This is probably the first club tournament in the world, and is still played for today.

The Swimming Association of Great Britain (SAGB; forerunner of the Amateur Swimming Association, of England) recognised the sport on 13th April 1885. Canada was one of the first countries outside the United Kingdom to adopt the sport. The Midland (of England) Counties Swimming and Aquatic Football Association1 probably set up the first water polo league in the world. Their first champions, in 1884, were Birmingham Leander who beat Hanley 1-0.

The first national club championships (in England) were played in 1888. Burton Amateur Club defeated Otter Swimming Club 3–0 in the Old Lambert Baths in London. Burton Amateur was formed in 1878, and still exists today. Otter was formed in London in 1869; and also still exists today, with male and female water water polo teams. Though originally it was a male-only swimming club. The London Water Polo League, encouraged by the Otter Club, was formed in 1889. In that year, Nautilus were the first champions, defeating Otter 2-0. The next league was the Northern Counties. Their first champions were Manchester Osborne, who beat Manchester Leaf Street 4-1, in 1892. The longest running single match is the annual one between Oxford and Cambridge universities. This first one was played on October 16th 1891, at the Old Crown Baths, Kensington Oval, London. Oxford won 4–1.

The first international water polo match was between England and Scotland at the Kensington Baths in London, on July 28th, 1890. Scotland won 4–0 [5]. The England team were F Browne, WG Carrey, HF Clark, JF Genders, William Henry, J Finegan and JL Mayger. The referee was Archibald Sinclair (who also founded the London Water Polo league) from Ranelagh Harriers, England. William Henry (1859-1928) and Archibald Sinclair (1866-1922) went on to publish a book called ‘Swimming’ (Longmans & Co, London) in 1893. It included a chapter on water polo and may be the first book to have a chapter on the subject.

Outside England and Scotland

By the 1880s, the game stressed swimming, passing, and scoring by shooting into a goal net; players could only be tackled when holding the ball and could not be taken under water. Canada was one of the first countries outside Britain to adopt the sport. The Montreal Swimming Club which had formed in 1876 formed a water polo team in 1887 and games were played in the St. Lawrence River along the shore of St. Helen's Island.

In 1888, the sport was brought to the USA, by John Robinson, an English swimming instructor; by organising a team at the Boston Athletic Association. Two years later, J.H. Smith and Arnold Heilban started a team at the Sydenham Swimmers Club (later at the Metropole AC) in Providence, Rhode Island. In the autumn of the same year (1890) the New York Athletic Club (NYAC) introduced the game to members. The first US championships were held on 28th January 1890, in Providence, when Sydenham Swimmers Club defeated Boston Athletic Association by 2:1.

Water polo final at the 1908 Summer Olympics

Between 1890 and 1900, the game developed in Europe, spreading to Hungary in 1889, Belgium in 1890, Austria and Germany in 1894 and France in 1895, using British rules. A different game was being played in the United States, characterized by rough play, holding, diving underwater, and soft, semi-inflated ball that could be gripped tightly and carried underwater. In 1900, the sport of water polo was added to the program of the Olympics – the first team sport to be added.[6] Due to the different codes, European teams did not compete. By 1914, most US teams agreed to conform to international rules.[7] An international water polo committee was formed in 1929, consisting of representatives from Great America and the International Amateur Swimming Federation (FINA). Rules were developed for international matches and put into effect in 1930; FINA has been the international governing body for the sport since that time.

Over the years, both technical and rule changes affected the character of the game. In 1928, Hungarian water polo coach Béla Komjádi invented the "air pass," or "dry pass", a technique in which a player directly passes the ball through the air to another player, who receives it without the ball hitting the water. Previously, players would let the ball drop in the water first and then reach out for it, but the dry pass made the offensive game more dynamic, and contributed to Hungarian dominance of water polo for 60 years.[8] In 1936, James R. ("Jimmy") Smith, California water polo coach and author of several books on water polo mechanics, developed a water polo ball made with an inflatable bladder and a rubber fabric cover, which improved performance. The previous leather ball absorbed water and became heavier during the game. In 1949, rule changes allowed play to continue uninterrupted after a referee whistled an ordinary foul, speeding up play. In the 1970s, the exclusion foul replaced a point system for major fouls; players guilty of this foul were excluded for a 1-minute penalty and their team forced to play with fewer players. Possession of the ball was limited to 45 seconds before a scoring attempt. Time of penalties and possession has been reduced since then. The direct shot on goal from the seven (7) meter line after a free throw was allowed in 1994, and changed to a five-meter shot in 2005.

Local rule variations

United States

In 2006, revisions were made to the NFHS 2006–2007 swimming/diving and water polo rulebook (USWP and NCAA rules still vary). The four and seven-meter lines were merged to a five-meter line. Under the revised rules, a goalkeeper may use two hands and stand on the bottom of the pool (if shallow) until the 5-meter line, and go beyond the 5-meter line according to the field rules (one hand on the ball no standing), but still not pass the half line. The goalie may strike the ball with a clenched fist, although this is not recommended.

New cap rules were also enacted. A goalie cap must now be in quarters alternating red/dark for home and red/white for away. The goalie must be number 1 or 13. For women, a red swim cap must be worn under the goalie cap. A team's dark swim cap is no longer acceptable as it is hard to distinguish a goalie from field players if official cap is off.

Olympic competition

Game at the 2004 Athens Olympics.

Men's water polo at the Olympics was the among the first team sports introduced at the 1900 games (along with cricket, rugby, football (soccer), polo (with horses), rowing and tug of war).[9] Women's water polo became an Olympic sport at the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games after political protests from the Australian women's team. Such protests were rewarded when Australia won the gold medal match against the United States with a "buzzer-beater" last-minute goal, taken from outside the seven-meter line.

Some of the best ever include Spain's Manuel Estiarte who played in a record six Olympics and led in scoring for four of them. Dezső Gyarmati of Hungary won water polo medals at five successive Olympic Games (gold 1952, 1956, 1964; silver 1948; bronze 1960), a record in water polo.[10] Another major figure in the sport was Tamás Faragó,[11] who led Hungary to Olympic Medals in 1972, 1976 and 1980. The play of American Terry Schroeder[12] led the United States to its first Olympic silver medals in 1984 and 1988.

The most famous water polo match in history is probably the 1956 Summer Olympics semi-final match between Hungary and the Soviet Union. As the athletes left for the games, the Hungarian revolution began, and the Soviet army crushed the uprising. Many of the Hungarian athletes vowed never to return home, and felt their only means of fighting back was by victory in the pool. The confrontation was the most bloody and violent water polo game in history, in which the pool reputedly turned red from blood. The Hungarians defeated the Soviets 4–0 before the game was called off in the final minute to prevent angry Hungarians in the crowd reacting to Valentin Prokopov punching Ervin Zador's eye open. The Hungarians went on to win the Olympic gold medal by defeating Yugoslavia 2–1 in the final. Half of the Hungarian Olympic delegation defected after the games. A documentary by Lucy Liu, Freedom's Fury, premiered in April 2006, recounting the events of the 1956 Hungarian uprising and climaxing with this politicized game.

International play

Every 2 to 4 years since 1973, a men's Water Polo World Championship is played together with the World Swimming Championship, under the auspices of FINA. Women's water polo was added in 1986. A second tournament series, the FINA Water Polo World Cup, has been held every other year since 1979. In 2002, FINA organized the sport's first international league, the FINA Water Polo World League, in which the best national teams compete against one another in an annual season format with nearly half a million dollar purse.

Internationally, the biggest water polo competition in the world is played in the Netherlands. Prince William of Wales was the captain of his collegiate water polo team at St Andrew's University, Scotland. The annual Varsity Match between Oxford and Cambridge Universities is the sport's longest running rivalry, first played in 1891.[13]

Results of the major international championships

Olympic Games

Olympic medals in men's water polo
Games Gold Silver Bronze
1900 Paris  Great Britain  Belgium  France
 France
1904 St. Louis  United States  United States  United States
1908 London  Great Britain  Belgium  Sweden
1912 Stockholm  Great Britain  Sweden  Belgium
1920 Antwerp  Great Britain  Belgium  Sweden
1924 Paris  France  Belgium  United States
1928 Amsterdam  Germany  Hungary  France
1932 Los Angeles  Hungary  Germany  United States
1936 Berlin  Hungary  Germany  Belgium
1948 London  Italy  Hungary  Netherlands
1952 Helsinki  Hungary  Yugoslavia  Italy
1956 Melbourne  Hungary  Yugoslavia  Soviet Union
1960 Rome  Italy  Soviet Union  Hungary
1964 Tokyo  Hungary  Yugoslavia  Soviet Union
1968 Mexico City  Yugoslavia  Soviet Union  Hungary
1972 Munich  Soviet Union  Hungary  United States
1976 Montreal  Hungary  Italy  Netherlands
1980 Moscow  Soviet Union  Yugoslavia  Hungary
1984 Los Angeles  Yugoslavia  United States  West Germany
1988 Seoul  Yugoslavia  United States  Soviet Union
1992 Barcelona  Italy  Spain  Unified Team
1996 Atlanta  Spain  Croatia  Italy
2000 Sydney  Hungary  Russia  Yugoslavia
2004 Athens  Hungary  Serbia and Montenegro  Russia
2008 Beijing  Hungary  United States  Serbia
2012 London  Croatia  Italy  Serbia
2016 Rio de Janeiro  Serbia  Croatia  Italy
Olympic medals in women's water polo
Games Gold Silver Bronze
2000 Sydney  Australia  United States  Russia
2004 Athens  Italy  Greece  United States
2008 Beijing  Netherlands  United States  Australia
2012 London  United States  Spain  Australia
2016 Rio de Janeiro  United States  Italy  Russia

Championships organized by the Federation Internationale de Natation (FINA)

I. FINA World Aquatics Championships

Men
(Source: FINA Men's Water Polo Records)
Year and City Gold Silver Bronze
1973 Belgrade, Yugoslavia Hungary Soviet Union Yugoslavia
1975 Cali, Colombia Soviet Union Hungary Italy
1978 Berlin, Germany Italy Hungary Yugoslavia
1982 Guayaquil, Ecuador Soviet Union Hungary Germany
1986 Madrid, Spain Yugoslavia Italy Soviet Union
1991 Perth, Australia Yugoslavia Spain Hungary
1994 Rome, Italy Italy Spain Russia
1998 Perth, Australia Spain Hungary FR Yugoslavia
2001 Fukuoka, Japan Spain FR Yugoslavia Russia
2003 Barcelona, Spain Hungary Italy Serbia and Montenegro
2005 Montreal, Canada Serbia and Montenegro Hungary Greece
2007 Melbourne Croatia Hungary Spain
2009 Rome, Italy Serbia Spain Croatia
2011 Shanghai, China Italy Serbia Croatia
2013 Barcelona, Spain Hungary Montenegro Croatia
2015 Kazan, Russia Serbia Croatia Greece
2017 Budapest, Hungary Croatia Hungary Serbia
Women
(Source: FINA Women's Water Polo Records)
Year and City Gold Silver Bronze
1986 Madrid, Spain Australia Netherlands United States
1991 Perth, Australia Netherlands Canada United States
1994 Rome, Italy Hungary Netherlands Italy
1998 Perth, Western Australia Italy Netherlands Australia
2001 Fukuoka, Japan Italy Hungary Canada
2003 Barcelona, Spain United States Italy Russia
2005 Montreal, Canada Hungary United States Canada
2007 Melbourne United States Australia Russia
2009 Rome, Italy United States Australia Russia
2011 Shanghai, China Greece China Russia
2013 Barcelona, Spain Spain Australia Hungary
2015 Kazan, Russia United States Netherlands Italy

II. FINA Water Polo World Cup

Men
(Source: FINA Men's Water Polo Records)
Year and City Gold Silver Bronze
1979 Belgrade, Yugoslavia Hungary United States Yugoslavia
1981 Long Beach, California Soviet Union Yugoslavia Cuba
1983 Malibu, California Soviet Union Germany Italy
1985 Duisburg, Germany Germany United States Spain
1987 Thessaloniki, Greece Yugoslavia Soviet Union Germany
1989 Berlin Yugoslavia Italy Hungary
1991 Barcelona, Spain United States Yugoslavia Spain
1993 Athens, Greece Italy Hungary Australia
1995 Atlanta, Georgia Hungary Italy Russia
1997 Athens, Greece United States Greece Hungary
1999 Sydney Hungary Italy Spain
2002 Belgrade, Serbia Russia Hungary FR Yugoslavia
2006 Budapest, Hungary Serbia and Montenegro Hungary Spain
2010 Oradea, Romania Serbia Croatia Spain
2014 Almaty, Kazakhstan Serbia Hungary Croatia
Women
(Source: FINA Women's Water Polo Records)
Year and City Gold Silver Bronze
1979 Merced, California United States Netherlands Australia
1980 Breda, Netherlands Netherlands United States Canada
1981 Brisbane, Australia Canada Netherlands Australia
1983 Sainte-Foy, Quebec, Canada Netherlands United States Australia
1984 Irvine, California Australia United States Netherlands
1988 Christchurch, New Zealand Netherlands Hungary Canada
1989 Eindhoven, Netherlands Netherlands United States Hungary
1991 Long Beach, California Netherlands Australia United States
1993 Catania, Italy Netherlands Italy Hungary
1995 Sydney Australia Netherlands Hungary
1997 Nancy, France Netherlands Russia Australia
1999 Winnipeg, Canada Netherlands Australia Italy
2002 Perth, Western Australia Hungary United States Canada
2006 Tianjin, China Australia Italy Russia
2010 Christchurch, New Zealand United States Australia China
2014 Khanty-Mansiysk, Russia United States Australia Spain

III. FINA Water Polo World League

Men
Year and City Gold Silver Bronze
2002 Patras, Greece Russia Spain Hungary
2003 New York Hungary Italy United States
2004 Long Beach, California Hungary Serbia and Montenegro Greece
2005 Belgrade, Serbia and Montenegro Serbia and Montenegro Hungary Germany
2006 Athens Serbia and Montenegro Spain Greece
2007 Berlin, Germany Serbia Hungary Australia
2008 Genoa, Italy Serbia United States Australia
2009 Podgorica, Montenegro Montenegro Croatia Serbia
2010 Nis, Serbia Serbia Montenegro Croatia
2011 Firenze, Italy Serbia Italy Croatia
2012 Almaty, Kazakhstan Croatia Spain Italy
2013 Chelyabinsk, Russia Serbia Hungary Montenegro
2014 Dubai, UAE Serbia Hungary Montenegro
2015 Bergamo, Italy Serbia Croatia Brazil
Women
Year and City Gold Silver Bronze
2004 Long Beach, California United States Hungary Italy
2005 Kirishi, Russia Greece Russia Australia
2006 Cosenza, Italy United States Italy Russia
2007 Montreal, Canada United States Australia Greece
2008 Santa Cruz, Spain Russia United States Australia
2009 Kirishi, Russia United States Canada Australia
2010 La Jolla, United States United States Australia Greece
2011 Tianjin, China United States Italy Australia
2012 Changshu, China United States Australia Greece
2013 Beijing, China China Russia United States
2014 Kunshan, China United States Italia Australia
2015 Shanghai, China United States Australia Netherlands

(Source: FINA)

US colleges and clubs

Peter J. Cutino Award

Today club water polo is gaining popularity in the United States. Though the majority of domestic club teams are based in California, Florida, Illinois, and Texas, New England and Missouri preparatory high schools also often field teams. Club water polo teams in the United States often compete in national championships such as Junior Olympics, National Club Championships, and the Speedo Cup. Club teams from Washington, Oregon, Utah, and Michigan were entered at the 2005 USWP Junior Olympics.

Aniko Pelle (Hungary) and Sofia Konoukh (Russia) were among the first of an increasing number of international players competing in U.S. collegiate women's water polo. Because of water polo's increased popularity globally, the influence of international coaches like USC's Jovan Vavic from the former Yugoslavia, and the perks of attending an American college, international players are attracted to the premier US colleges. The 2005 Hawaii women's water polo team, coached by Canadian Michel Roy, has nine international players, the most of any team in the nation.

Teams from California dominate at the collegiate level. In the United States, water polo players tend to have prestigious academic backgrounds as well. A number of players, including former USA team captain Wolf Wigo, who retired after Athens 2004, Jacqueline Frank DeLuca, bronze medal Olympic goalie, and international phenom Tony Azevedo attended Stanford University. The sport's most notable balancing act to date includes Omar Amr,[14] who played on the US National Team while attending Harvard Medical School and recovering from a near career ending knee injury in 2001.

College championships

In the 2008 NCAA Women's Water Polo Championship, the UCLA women beat University of Southern California 6 to 3, for their fourth consecutive championship title. In the 2007 Men's NCAA Finals, the UC Berkeley Golden Bears defended their 2006 title by defeating the No. 1-ranked USC water polo men, 8–6. The most prestigious individual water polo honor, the Peter J. Cutino Award, was established in 1999 by the San Francisco Olympic Club, and is presented annually to the top American male and female collegiate water polo player. In 2008, Tim Hutten from UC Irvine and Courtney Mathewson from UCLA won the Cutinos.

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th Edition (1911): "Water Polo" Archived 25 August 2006 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 7 August 2006
  2. ↑ Barr, David (1981). A Guide to Water Polo. Sterling Publishing (London). ISBN 0-8069-9164-X.
  3. ↑ 12th FINA World Championship 2007: Classroom Resource Retrieved 20 September 2007
  4. ↑ polo. (n.d.). Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Retrieved 20 September 2007, from Dictionary.com website
  5. ↑ Pro Water Polo.com: History and Development of Water Polo, by Yiannis Giannouris Retrieved 4 September 2006
  6. ↑ Tracie Egan (1 August 2004). Water Polo: Rules, Tips, Strategy, and Safety. The Rosen Publishing Group. pp. 11–. ISBN 978-1-4042-0186-6. Retrieved 24 August 2012.
  7. ↑ USA Water Polo: History of Water Polo Archived 26 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 4 September 2006
  8. ↑ International Swimming Hall of Fame: Bela Komjadi Archived 22 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine.
  9. ↑ International Olympic Committee Water Polo Site
  10. ↑ International Olympic Committee Athlete Profile: Deszo Gyarmati
  11. ↑ "Tamas Farago Biography at International Swimming Hall of Fame". Archived from the original on 7 May 2006. Retrieved 7 August 2006.
  12. ↑ "Terry Schroeder Biography at International Swimming Hall of Fame". Archived from the original on 22 June 2006. Retrieved 7 August 2006.
  13. ↑ Oxford-Cambridge Water Polo: Varsity Match History Archived 17 June 2006 at the Wayback Machine.
  14. ↑ US Olympic Team Biography of Omar Amr

Further reading

  • Charroin, Pascal (1998). L'eau et la balle: Une histoire du water-polo (in French). Harmattan. p. 248 pages. ISBN 2-7384-6397-5.
  • Norris (Ed.), Jim (April 1990). The World Encyclopedia of Water Polo by James Roy Smith. Olive Press. p. 513 pages. ISBN 0-933380-05-4.
  • Philipps, Wolfgang (2015). „Aquatic football“, „aquatic polo“, „water-polo“... Grundzüge der Geschichte des Wasserballs in Großbritannien und Hannover (1870 bis 1933) (in German). In: Christian Becker et al. (eds.): „Als der Sport nach Hannover kam“. Geschichte und Rezeption eines Kulturtransfers zwischen England und Norddeutschland vom 18. bis zum 20. Jahrhundert. Lit-Verlag. p. 224 pages, ISBN 978-3-643-13152-2. pp. 107–135.
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