Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim

Marshal of Finland, Baron
Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim
VR SR, SVR SR ketj., SL SR
6th President of Finland
In office
4 August 1944 – 11 March 1946
Prime Minister Antti Hackzell
Urho Castrén
J. K. Paasikivi
Preceded by Risto Ryti
Succeeded by J. K. Paasikivi
Commander-in-Chief of the Finnish Defense Forces
In office
17 October 1939 – 12 January 1945
Preceded by Hugo Österman (as Commander of the Hosts)
Succeeded by Axel Heinrichs (as Chief of Defence)
In office
25 January 1918 – 30 May 1918
Preceded by post created
Succeeded by Karl Fredrik Wilkama
State Regent of Finland
In office
12 December 1918 – 26 July 1919
Preceded by P. E. Svinhufvud
Succeeded by K. J. Ståhlberg as President of the Republic
Personal details
Born (1867-06-04)4 June 1867
Askainen, Grand Duchy of Finland, Russian Empire
Died 27 January 1951(1951-01-27) (aged 83)
Lausanne, Switzerland
Resting place Hietaniemi cemetery, Helsinki
Nationality Finnish
Spouse(s) Anastasie Arapova (div. 1919)
Children Anastasie Mannerheim (1893–1977)
Sophie Mannerheim Jr. (1895–1963)
Relatives Count Carl Robert Mannerheim (father)
Count Carl Gustaf Mannerheim (paternal grandfather)
See Mannerheim family
Profession Military officer, statesman
Signature
Military service
Allegiance  Russian Empire
 Finland
Service/branch Imperial Russian Army
White Guard
Finnish Army
Years of service 1887–1917 (Russia)
1918–1946 (Finland)
Rank Lieutenant General (Russia)
Field Marshal (Finland)
Battles/wars

Russo-Japanese War
First World War
Finnish Civil War
Second World War

Baron Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim (Swedish pronunciation: [kɑːɭ ²ɡɵsːtav ˈeːmɪl ²manːɛrˌheɪm]; 4 June 1867 – 27 January 1951) was a Finnish military leader and statesman.[1] Mannerheim served as the military leader of the Whites in the Finnish Civil War, Regent of Finland (1918–1919), commander-in-chief of Finland's defence forces during World War II, Marshal of Finland, and the sixth president of Finland (1944–1946).

Mannerheim made a career in the Imperial Russian Army, rising to the rank of lieutenant general. He also had a prominent place in the ceremonies for Tsar Nicholas II's coronation and later had several private meetings with the Russian Tsar. After the Bolshevik revolution, Finland declared its independence but was soon embroiled in civil war between the pro-Bolshevik "Reds" and the "Whites", who were the troops of the Senate of Finland, supported by troops of the German Empire. Mannerheim was appointed the military chief of the Whites. Twenty years later, when Finland was twice at war with the Soviet Union from November 1939 until September 1944, Mannerheim successfully led the defence of Finland as commander-in-chief of the country's armed forces. In 1944, when the prospect of Germany's defeat in World War II became clear, Mannerheim was elected President of Finland and oversaw peace negotiations with the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom. He resigned the presidency in 1946 and died in 1951.

In a Finnish survey 53 years after his death, Mannerheim was voted the greatest Finn of all time.[2] Given the broad recognition in Finland and elsewhere of his unparalleled role in establishing and later preserving Finland's independence from Russia, Mannerheim has long been referred to as the father of modern Finland,[3][4][5][6][7] and the Finnish capital Helsinki's Mannerheim Museum memorializing the leader's life and times has been called "the closest thing there is to a [Finnish] national shrine".[5] In addition, he is the only Finn to have held the rank of field marshal, an honorary rank bestowed upon especially distinguished generals.

Early life and military career

Ancestry

The Mannerheims, originally from Germany, became Swedish noblemen in 1693. In the latter part of the 18th century they moved to Finland, then an integral part of Sweden, [8][9][10]

Mannerheim's great-grandfather, Count Carl Erik Mannerheim (1759–1837) was the first Prime Minister of Finland. His grandfather Count Carl Gustaf Mannerheim (1797–1854), was an entomologist and jurist. His father, Carl Robert, Count Mannerheim (1835–1914), was a both a playwright and industrialist: with modest success in both endeavors. Mannerheim's mother, Hedvig Charlotta Helena von Julin (1842–1881), was the daughter of a wealthy industrialist. Father went off with his mistress in 1880. [11][12] His mother with their seven children went to live with her aunt Louise, but mother died the following year. [13] Mannerheim's maternal uncle, Albert von Julin, became his legal guardian.[14] The third child of the family, Mannerheim inherited the title of Baron.

Education

Mannerheim (right) with a fellow student, Antanas Ričardas Druvė,[15] in Nicholas Cavalry School, St Petersburg, late 1880s.

He was sent to the Hamina Cadet School, a state school educating aristocrats for the Russian army, in 1882.[16] The handsome young Baron towered over his classmates, standing 6 ft 4 in. He was expelled in 1886 when he left without permission. [17] Next he attended the Helsinki Private Lyceum, where he passed the university entrance examinations in June 1887. [18] Besides his Swedish mother tongue, Mannerheim learned to speak Russian, French, German, English and some Finnish. [19] From 1887 to 1889, Mannerheim attended the Nicholas Cavalry School in St. Petersburg. [20] In January 1891, he joined the Chevalier Guard Regiment in St Petersburg. [21]

In 1892, he married a wealthy and beautiful noble lady of Russian-Serbian heritage, Anastasia Arapova (1872–1936). [22] [23] They had two daughters, Anastasie (1893–1978) and Sophie (1895–1963). The parents separated in 1902 and divorced in 1919. [24] Mannerheim served in the Imperial Chevalier Guard until 1904. An expert rider, one of his duties was buying horses for the army. In 1903, he was put in charge of the model squadron in the Imperial Chevalier Guard and became a member of the equestrian training board of the cavalry regiments. [25]

Service in Russian Army

After his coronation, Nicholas II of Russia leaves Dormition Cathedral. The Chevalier Guard Lieutenant marching in front to the Tsar's right is Mannerheim.

Mannerheim volunteered for active service in the Russo-Japanese war in 1904. He was transferred to the 52nd Nezhin Dragoon Regiment in Manchuria, with the rank of Lieutenant-Colonel. He was promoted to Colonel for bravery in the Battle of Mukden in 1905 [26] and briefly commanded an irregular unit of Hong Huzi, a local militia, on an exploratory mission into Inner Mongolia. [27]

When Mannerheim returned to St. Petersburg, he was asked to undertake a journey through Turkestan to Beijing as a secret intelligence-officer. The Russian General Staff wanted accurate, on-the-ground intelligence about the reforms and activities by the Qing dynasty, as well as the military feasibility of invading Western China: a possible move in their struggle with Britain for control of inner Asia.[28] Disguised as an ethnographic collector, he joined the French archeologist Paul Pelliot's expedition at Samarkand in Russian Turkestan (now Uzbekistan). They started From the terminus of the Trans-Caspian Railway in Andijan in July 1906, but Mannerheim quarreled with Pelliot. [28], so he made the greater part of the expedition on his own. [29]

Gustaf Mannerheim's route across Asia from St. Petersburg to Peking, 1906–1908.[30]

With a small caravan, including a Cossack guide, Chinese interpreter, and Uyghur cook, Mannerheim first trekked to Khotan in search of British and Japanese spies. After returning to Kashgar, he headed north into the Tian Shan range, surveying passes and gauging the stances of the tribes towards the Han Chinese. Mannerheim arrived in the provincial capital of Urumqi, and then headed east into Gansu province. He followed the Great Wall of China, and investigated a mysterious tribe known as Yugurs. [31] From Lanzhou, the provincial capital, Mannerheim headed south into Tibetan territory and visited the lamasery of Labrang, where he was stoned by xenophobic monks.[32] Mannerheim arrived in Beijing in July 1908, returning to St. Petersburg via Japan and the Trans-Siberian Express. His report gave a detailed account of Chinese modernization, covering education, military reforms, colonization of ethnic borderlands, mining and industry, railway construction, the influence of Japan, and opium smoking. [32] He also discussed the possibility of a Russian invasion of Xinjiang, and Xinjiang's possible role as a bargaining chip in a putative future war with China. [33]

After Mannerheim's return to Russia in 1909, he was appointed to command the 13th Vladimir Uhlan Regiment in Poland. The following year, he was promoted to major general and was posted as the commander of the Life Guard Uhlan Regiment of His Majesty in Warsaw. Next Mannerheim became part of the Imperial entourage and was appointed to command a cavalry brigade.  [34]

At the beginning of World War I, Mannerheim served as commander of the Guards Cavalry Brigade, and fought on the Austro-Hungarian and Romanian fronts. In December 1914, after distinguishing himself in combat against the Austro-Hungarian forces, Mannerheim was awarded the Order of St. George, 4th class. In March 1915, Mannerheim was appointed to command the 12th Cavalry Division.[35]

Mannerheim received leave to visit Finland and St. Petersburg in early 1917, and witnessed the outbreak of the February Revolution. After returning to the front, he was promoted to lieutenant general in April 1917 (the promotion was backdated to February 1915), and took command of the 6th Cavalry Corps in the summer of 1917. However, Mannerheim fell out of favour with the new government, who regarded him as not supporting the revolution, and was relieved of his duties. He decided to retire and returned to Finland.[34]

Political career

Regent of Finland

Mannerheim as Regent (seated), with his adjutants (left) Lt. Col. Lilius, Capt. Kekoni, Lt. Gallen-Kallela, Ensign Rosenbröijer.

The former Grand Duchy of Finland was governing itself under its constitution of 1772. The Finnish parliament appointed Pehr Evind Svinhufvud to lead a government which the Russian Soviet recognized as independent. In January 1918 a Military committee was charged to bolster the Finnish army, then not much more than some locally organised White Guards. Mannerheim was appointed to the committee, but soon resigned to protest its indecision. On 13 January he was given command of the army. [36] He had only 24,000 newly enlisted, mostly untrained men. The Finnish red guard had 30,000 men and there were 70,000 Russian troops in Finland. His army was financed by a fifteen million mark line of credit provided by the bankers. His raw recruits had few arms. Nonetheless he marched them to Vaasa, which was garrisoned by 42,500 Russians. [37] He surrounded the Russian garrison with a mass of men, the defenders could not see that only the front rank was armed, so they surrendered, providing badly needed arms. Further weapons were purchased from Germany. Eighty-four Swedish officers and 200 Swedish NCOs served in the Finnish Civil War (or War of Liberty, as it was known among the "Whites"). Other officers were Finns who had been trained by the Germans as a Jäger Battalion. In March 1918 they were aided by German troops landing in Finland and occupying Helsinki.

After the Whites' victory in the bitterly fought civil war, during which both sides employed ruthless terror tactics, Mannerheim resigned as commander-in-chief. He left Finland in June 1918 to visit relatives in Sweden. [38]

Mannerheim's day order no 1 which established the first headquarters of the modern military of Finland on 2 February 1918

In Stockholm, Mannerheim conferred with Allied diplomats, emphasizing his opposition to the Finnish government's policy: they were confident that the Germans would win the war and had nominated the Kaiser's brother-in-law Frederick Charles of Hesse to be their king. Mannerheim's rapport with the Allies was recognized in October 1918 when the Finnish government sent him to Britain and France to attempt to gain Britain's and the United States's recognition of Finland's independence. In December, he was summoned back to Finland because, after Frederick Charles had renounced the throne, Mannerheim been elected temporary Regent of Finland, As Regent, Mannerheim often signed official documents using Kustaa, the Finnish form of his Christian name, to emphasize his Finnishness to those who were suspicious of his background in the Russian armed forces, and his difficulties with the Finnish language [39] Mannerheim disliked his last Christian name, Emil, and wrote his signature as C.G. Mannerheim, or simply Mannerheim. Among his relatives and close friends Mannerheim was called Gustaf. [40]

Mannerheim leading the victory parade at the end of the Finnish Civil War in Helsinki, 1918

Mannerheim secured recognition of Finnish independence from Britain and the United States. In July 1919, after he had confirmed a new republican constitution, Mannerheim stood as a candidate in the first presidential election, with parliament as the electors. He was supported by the National Coalition Party and the Swedish People's Party. He ran a poor second to Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg and withdrew from public life. [34]

Interwar period

In the interwar years, Mannerheim held no public office. This was largely due to his being seen by many politicians of the centre and left as a controversial figure for his ruthless battle with the Bolsheviks, his supposed desire for Finnish intervention on the side of the Whites during the Russian Civil War, and the Finnish socialists' antipathy toward him. They saw him as the bourgeois "White General". Mannerheim doubted that modern party-based politics would produce principled and high-quality leaders in Finland or elsewhere. In his gloomy opinion, the fatherland's interests were too often sacrificed by the democratic politicians for partisan benefit. [41] [42]

He kept busy heading the Finnish Red Cross (Chairman 1919–1951), was a member of the board of the International Red Cross, and founded the Mannerheim League for Child Welfare. He was also the chairman of the supervisory board of a commercial bank, the Liittopankki-Unionsbanken, and after its merger with the Bank of Helsinki, the chairman of the supervisory board of that bank until 1934, and was a member of the board of Nokia Corporation. [43]

In the 1920s and 1930s, Mannerheim returned to Asia, where he traveled and hunted extensively. [44] On his first trip in 1927, to avoid going through the Soviet Union, he went by ship from London to Calcutta. From there he travelled overland to Burma, where he spent a month at Rangoon; then he went on to Sikkim. He returned home by car and aeroplane. [43] [45]

His second voyage, in 1936, was by ship via Aden to Bombay. During his travels and hunting expeditions, he visited Madras, Delhi and Nepal, where he was invited by the King to join a tiger hunt.

In 1929, Mannerheim refused the right-wing radicals' plea to become a de facto military dictator, although he did express some support for the right-wing Lapua Movement.[46] After President Pehr Evind Svinhufvud was elected in 1931, he appointed Mannerheim as chairman of Finland's Defence Council and gave him a written promise that in the event of war he would become the Commander-in-Chief of the Finnish Army. (Svinhufvud's successor Kyösti Kallio renewed this promise in 1937). In 1933, Mannerheim received the rank of Field Marshal (sotamarsalkka, fältmarskalk). By this time, Mannerheim had come to be seen by the public, including some former socialists, less as a "White General" and more as a nonpartisan figure, enhanced by his public statements urging reconciliation between the opposing sides in the Civil War and the need to focus on national unity and defence: "we need not ask where a man stood fifteen years ago". [47] Mannerheim supported Finland's military industry and sought in vain to obtain a military defence union with Sweden. However, rearming the Finnish army did not occur as swiftly or as well as he hoped, and he was not enthusiastic about a war. He had many disagreements with various Cabinets, and signed many letters of resignation. [48] [49]

Commander-in-Chief

Mannerheim in 1940

When negotiations with the Soviet Union failed in 1939, Mannerheim withdrew his resignation on 17 October. At age 72, he became commander-in-chief of the Finnish armed forces after the Soviet attack on 30 November. In a letter to his daughter Sophie, he stated, "I had not wanted to undertake the responsibility of commander-in-chief, as my age and my health entitled me, but I had to yield to appeals from the President of the Republic and the government, and now for the fourth time I am at war." [39]

He addressed the first of his often controversial orders of the day to the Defence Forces on the day the war began:

The President of the Republic has appointed me on 30 November 1939 as Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces of the country. Brave soldiers of Finland! I enter on this task at a time when our hereditary enemy is once again attacking our country. Confidence in one's commander is the first condition for success. You know me and I know you and know that everyone in the ranks is ready to do his duty even to death. This war is nothing other than the continuation and final act of our War of Independence. We are fighting for our homes, our faith, and our country.[39]

The defensive field fortifications they manned became known as the Mannerheim Line.

Mannerheim quickly organised his headquarters in Mikkeli. His chief of staff was Lieutenant General Aksel Airo, while his close friend, General Rudolf Walden, was sent as a representative of the headquarters to the cabinet from 3 December 1939 until 27 March 1940, after which he became defence minister.[48][49]

Mannerheim spent most of the Winter War and Continuation War in his Mikkeli headquarters but made many visits to the front. Between the wars, he remained commander-in-chief. [49]

Before the Continuation War, the Germans offered Mannerheim command over 80,000 German troops in Finland. Mannerheim declined so as to not tie himself and Finland to Nazi war aims.[50] Mannerheim kept relations with Adolf Hitler's government as formal as possible and successfully opposed proposals for an alliance. He firmly refused to allow his troops to participate in the Siege of Leningrad. [48] They retook the Finnish territories that the Russians had seized, but went no further. [51]

In World war II, using his friendship with the Germany helped to improve the level of life of many Polish diplomats and government officials arrested in 1939

Visit by Adolf Hitler

Discussion with Hitler, Mannerheim and President Ryti. Hitler visited Mannerheim on his 75th birthday.

Mannerheim's 75th birthday, 4 June 1942, was a national celebration. The government granted him the unique title of Marshal of Finland (Suomen Marsalkka in Finnish, Marskalk av Finland in Swedish). So far he is the only person to receive the title. A surprise birthday visit by Hitler occured on the day as he wished to visit the "brave Finns (die tapferen Finnen)" and their leader Mannerheim. [48][49] Mannerheim did not want to meet him at his headquarters or in Helsinki, as then it would seem like an official state visit. The meeting took place near Imatra, in south-eastern Finland, and was arranged in secrecy. [48] From Immola Airfield, Hitler, accompanied by President Ryti, was driven to where Mannerheim was waiting at a railway siding. A speech from Hitler was followed by a birthday meal and negotiations between him and Mannerheim. Overall, Hitler spent about five hours in Finland; he reportedly asked the Finns to step up military operations against the Soviets, but apparently made no specific demands. [48]

During the visit, an engineer of the Finnish broadcasting company YLE, Thor Damen, succeeded in recording the first eleven minutes of Hitler's and Mannerheim's private conversation. This had to be done secretly, as Hitler never allowed off-guard recordings. Damen was assigned to record the official birthday speeches and Mannerheim's response and therefore placed microphones in some of the railway cars. However, Mannerheim and his guests chose to go to a car that did not have a microphone in it. Damen acted quickly, pushing a microphone through one of the car windows onto a net shelf just above where Hitler and Mannerheim were sitting. After eleven minutes of Hitler's and Mannerheim's private conversation, Hitler's SS bodyguards spotted the cords coming out of the window and realized that the Finnish engineer was recording the conversation. They gestured to him to stop recording immediately, and he complied. The SS bodyguards demanded that the tape be destroyed, but YLE was allowed to keep the reel after promising to keep it in a sealed container. It was given to Kustaa Vilkuna, head of the state censors' office, and in 1957 returned to YLE. It was released to the public a few years later. It is the only known recording of Hitler conversing. [52][53]

There is an unsubstantiated story while conversing with Hitler, Mannerheim lit a cigar. Mannerheim expected that Hitler would ask Finland for more help against the Soviet Union, which Mannerheim was unwilling to give. When Mannerheim lit up, all in attendance gasped, for Hitler's aversion to smoking was well known. Nevertheless Hitler continued the conversation calmly, with no comment. By this test, Mannerheim could judge if Hitler was speaking from a position of strength or weakness. He refused Hitler, knowing that Hitler was in a weak position, and could not dictate to him. [48][49]

Shortly thereafter, Mannerheim returned the visit, traveling to Hitler's headquarters in East Prussia. [54]

End of war and presidency

Mannerheim leaves the Presidential Palace, Helsinki on 4 March 1946 after his short presidency

In June 1944, Gustaf Mannerheim, to ensure German support while a major Soviet offensive was threatening Finland, thought it necessary to agree to the pact the German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop demanded. But even then Mannerheim distanced himself from the pact, and it fell to President Risto Ryti to sign it, so it came to be known as the Ryti-Ribbentrop Agreement. This allowed Mannerheim to revoke the agreement upon the resignation of President Ryti at the start of August 1944. Mannerheim succeeded Ryti as president.[48][55]

When Germany was deemed sufficiently weakened, and the USSR's summer offensive was fought to a standstill (see Battle of Tali-Ihantala) thanks to the June agreement with the Germans, Finland's leaders saw a chance to reach a peace with the Soviet Union. [56] At first, attempts were made to persuade Mannerheim to become prime minister, but he rejected them because of his age and lack of experience running a civil government. The next suggestion was to elect him Head of State. Risto Ryti would resign as President, and parliament would appoint Mannerheim as Regent. The use of the title "Regent" would have reflected the exceptional circumstances of Mannerheim's election. Mannerheim and Ryti both agreed, and Ryti submitted a notice of resignation on 1 August. The Parliament of Finland passed a special act conferring the presidency on Mannerheim on 4 August 1944. He took the oath of office the same day.[48][55]

A month after Mannerheim took office, the Continuation War was concluded on harsh terms, but ultimately far less harsh than those imposed on the other states bordering the Soviet Union. Finland retained its sovereignty, its parliamentary democracy, and its market economy. Territorial losses were considerable; all Karelia and Petsamo were lost. Numerous Karelian refugees needed to be relocated. The war reparations were very heavy. Finland also had to fight the Lapland War against withdrawing German troops in the north, and at the same time demobilize its own army, making it harder to expel the Germans.[57] It is widely agreed that only Mannerheim could have guided Finland through these difficult times, when the Finnish people had to come to terms with the severe conditions of the armistice, their implementation by a Soviet-dominated Allied Control Commission, and the task of post-war reconstruction.[55]

Before deciding to accept the Soviet demands, Mannerheim wrote a missive directly to Hitler:[58]

Our German brothers-in-arms will forever remain in our hearts. The Germans in Finland were certainly not the representatives of foreign despotism but helpers and brothers-in-arms. But even in such cases foreigners are in difficult positions requiring such tact. I can assure you that during the past years nothing whatsoever happened that could have induced us to consider the German troops intruders or oppressors. I believe that the attitude of the German Army in northern Finland towards the local population and authorities will enter our history as a unique example of a correct and cordial relationship ... I deem it my duty to lead my people out of the war. I cannot and I will not turn the arms which you have so liberally supplied us against Germans. I harbour the hope that you, even if you disapprove of my attitude, will wish and endeavour like myself and all other Finns to terminate our former relations without increasing the gravity of the situation.

Mannerheim's term as president was difficult for him. Although he was elected for a full six-year term, he was 77 years old in 1944 and had accepted the office reluctantly after being urged to do so. The situation was exacerbated by frequent periods of ill-health, the demands of the Allied Control Commission, and the war responsibility trials. He was afraid throughout most of his presidency that the commission would request that he be prosecuted for crimes against peace. This never happened. One of the reasons for this was Stalin's respect for and admiration of the Marshal. Stalin told a Finnish delegation in Moscow in 1947 that the Finns owe much to their old Marshal. Due to Mannerheim, Finland was not occupied.[59] Despite Mannerheim's criticisms of some of the demands of the Control Commission, he worked hard to carry out Finland's armistice obligations. He also emphasised the necessity of further work on reconstruction in Finland after the war.[48][55]

Mannerheim was troubled by recurring health problems during 1945, and was absent on medical leave from his duties as president from November until February 1946. He spent six weeks in Portugal to restore his health. After the announcement of the verdicts in the war crimes trials in February, Mannerheim decided to resign. He believed that he had accomplished the duties he had been elected to carry out: The war was ended, the armistice obligations carried out, and war responsibility trials finished.

Mannerheim resigned as president on 11 March 1946, giving as his reason his declining health and his view that the tasks he had been selected to carry out had been accomplished. Even the Finnish communists, his enemies in 1918, appreciated his efforts and his role in maintaining the unity of the country during a difficult period. He was succeeded by the conservative Prime Minister Juho Kusti Paasikivi. [55]

Final days and death

Mannerheim's funeral parade in Helsinki Senate Square on 4 February 1951.

After his resignation, Mannerheim bought Kirkniemi Manor in Lohja, intending to spend his retirement there. In June 1946, he underwent an operation for a perforated peptic ulcer, and in October of that year he was diagnosed with a duodenal ulcer. In early 1947, it was recommended that he should travel to the Valmont Sanatorium in Montreux, Switzerland, to recuperate and write his memoirs. Valmont was to be Mannerheim's main residence for the remainder of his life, although he regularly returned to Finland, and also visited Sweden, France and Italy.[60]

Because Mannerheim was old and sickly, he personally wrote only certain passages of his memoirs. Some other parts he dictated. The remaining parts were written from his recollections by Mannerheim's various assistants, such as Colonel Aladár Paasonen; General Erik Heinrichs; Generals Grandell, Olenius and Martola; and Colonel Viljanen, a war historian. As long as Mannerheim was able to read, he proofread the typewritten drafts of his memoirs. He was almost totally silent about his private life, and focused instead on Finland's history, especially between 1917 and 1944. When Mannerheim suffered a fatal blocked intestine in January 1951, [61] his memoirs were not yet in their finished form. They were published after his death. [42]

Mannerheim died on 27 January 1951 (28 January Finland time), in the Cantonal Hospital in Lausanne (French: L'Hôpital cantonal à Lausanne; modern Lausanne University Hospital [62]), Switzerland. He was buried on 4 February 1951 in the Hietaniemi Cemetery in Helsinki in a state funeral with full military honours.

Legacy

Mannerheim Square in Helsinki with an equestrian statue of Mannerheim.

Today, Mannerheim retains respect as Finland's greatest statesman. This may be partly due to his refusal to enter partisan politics (although his sympathies were more right-wing than left-wing), his claim always to serve the fatherland without selfish motives, his personal courage in visiting the frontlines, his ability to work diligently into his late seventies, and his foreign political farsightedness in preparing for the Soviet invasion of Finland years before it occurred.[48] (See, for example, Jägerskiöld, "Mannerheim 1867–1951"; "The Republic's Presidents 1940–1956" / Tasavallan presidentit 1940–1956, published in Finland in 1993–1994).

Mannerheim's birthday, 4 June, is celebrated as Flag Day by the Finnish Defence Forces. This decision was made by the Finnish government on the occasion of his 75th birthday in 1942, when he was also granted the title of Marshal of Finland. Flag Day is celebrated with a national parade, and rewards and promotions for members of the defence forces. The life and times of Mannerheim are memorialized in the Mannerheim Museum.[43] The most prominent boulevard in the Finnish capital was renamed Mannerheimintie (Mannerheim Road) in the Marshal's honour during his lifetime.

Various landmarks across Finland honor Mannerheim, including most famously the Equestrian statue located on Helsinki's Mannerheimintie in front of the later-built Kiasma museum of modern art. Turku's Mannerheim Park includes a statue of him. Tampere's Mannerheim statue depicting the victorious Civil War general of the Whites was eventually placed in the forest some kilometres outside the city (in part due to lingering controversy over Mannerheim's Civil War role). Other statues, for examples, were erected in Mikkeli and Lahti.[63] On 5 December 2004, Mannerheim was voted the greatest Finnish person of all time in the Suuret suomalaiset (Great Finns) contest. [2]

From 1937 to 1967, at least five different Finnish postage stamps or stamp series were issued in honour of Mannerheim; and in 1960 the United States honoured Mannerheim as the "Liberator of Finland" with regular first-class envelope domestic and international stamps (at the time four cents and eight cents respectively) as part of its Champions of Liberty series that included other notable figures such as Mahatma Gandhi and Simon Bolivar. [64][65][66]

In the past few years Mannerheim has turned into more controversial character due to his alleged part in the deaths of communists during the Finnish civil war and, among others, Finnish rapper Kari "Paleface" Miettinen has demanded for the removal of Mannerheim's statue [67]

Military ranks

Finnish postal stamp 1941

Ranks

In the Russian Army

In the Finnish Army

Supreme Command

  • 1918: Commander-in-Chief of the White Guard: from January to May 1918
  • 1918: Commander-in-Chief of the Finnish Defence Forces: from December 1918 to July 1919
  • 1931: Chairman of the Defence Council: from 1931 to 1939
  • 1939: Commander-in-Chief of the Finnish Defence Forces [bis]: from 1939 to 1946

Awards

Coat of Arms of Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim
Details
Armiger Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim
Motto "Candida pro causa ense candido"[68]("With an honourable sword for an honourable cause")

In the course of his lifetime, Mannerheim received 82 military and civilian decorations.[69]

Mannerheim was honored by the US Mail with a postage stamp
Finnish
Russian Empire
Others

Ancestry

Works

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Klinge, Matti. "Mannerheim, Gustaf (1867 – 1951)". National Biography of Finland. Retrieved 21 April 2017.
  2. 1 2 (in Finnish) Suuret suomalaiset at YLE.fi
  3. ↑ Robert Edwards, White Death: Russia's War on Finland, 1939–40 , Phoenix, an Imprint of The Orion Publishing Group Ltd, (2007), p. 21
  4. ↑ Oliver Warner, Marshal Mannerheim and the Finns , Weidenfeld & Nicolson, (1967), pp.154 et seq.
  5. 1 2 Binder, David (16 October 1983). "Finland's Heritage on parade". The New York Times. Retrieved 17 August 2013.
  6. ↑ "Field Marshal Mannerheim, THE FATHER OF FINLAND". 15 November 1945. Retrieved 17 August 2013.
  7. ↑ "Finland Country Profile – Timeline". BBC News. 25 September 2012. Retrieved 17 August 2013.
  8. ↑ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 30 September 2007. Retrieved 17 August 2007.
  9. ↑ "Wayback Machine". 30 September 2007.
  10. ↑ "Mannerheimin suku onkin lähtöisin Saksasta".
  11. ↑ Meri (1990), pp. 107–108.
  12. ↑ Hynninen-Keitele-Lehti: "Neljä kertaa nopeammin kuin pännällä – Konttoritekniikan historia" (2008)
  13. ↑ Meri (1990), p. 108.
  14. ↑ Mannerheim – Marshal of Finland, TV8, 2006
  15. ↑ Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija, V t. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 2004. T.V: Dis-Fatva., 163 psl.
  16. ↑ Jägerskiöld (1965), pp. 68–70.
  17. ↑ Jägerskiöld (1965), pp. 93–94.
  18. ↑ Meri (1990), p. 123.
  19. ↑ Jägerskiöld (1986).
  20. ↑ Meri (1990), p. 129.
  21. ↑ Screen, J. E. O. (1970). Mannerheim : the years of preparation. London: C. Hurst. p. 33.
  22. ↑ "Краткие сведения об офицерах-Александрийцах: Великая война, Гражданская война, эмиграция. Часть 2-я (фамилии К - Р). - Статьи - Каталог статей - 5-й Гусарский Александрийский полк". blackhussars.ucoz.ru.
  23. ↑ Meri (1990), pp. 145–147.
  24. ↑ Meri (1990), pp. 148–149.
  25. ↑ Screen 1970, p. 40.
  26. ↑ Screen (1970), pp. 43–49.
  27. ↑ Clements (2009), pp. 80–81.
  28. 1 2 "Horse That Leaps Through Clouds - Retracing Mannerheim's Journey Across Asia". horsethatleaps.com.
  29. ↑ Clements (2009), pp. 100–103.
  30. ↑ Tamm, Eric Enno. The Horse That Leaps Through Clouds: A Tale of Espionage, the Silk Road and the Rise of Modern China. Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 2010.
  31. ↑ "Horse That Leaps Through Clouds - Retracing Mannerheim's Journey Across Asia". horsethatleaps.com.
  32. 1 2 "Horse That Leaps Through Clouds - Retracing Mannerheim's Journey Across Asia". horsethatleaps.com.
  33. ↑ Clements (2009), p. 155.
  34. 1 2 3 Putensen, Dörte (2017). "Der größte Finne aller Zeiten?". Damals (in German). No. 5. pp. 72–76.
  35. ↑ Harald Haarmann (2016). Modern Finland. p. 122.
  36. ↑ Screen, J. E. O. (2000). Mannerheim : the Finnish years. London: Hurst & Co. p. 9.
  37. ↑ Mannerheim 1954, p. 138.
  38. ↑ Mannerheim 1954, p. 184.
  39. 1 2 3 Jagerskiold (1986).
  40. ↑ Meri (1990), p. 104.
  41. ↑ Virkkunen, Sakari (1992). Mannerheimin kääntöpuoli. Helsingissä: Otava.
  42. 1 2 Jägerskiöld (1983).
  43. 1 2 3 Mannerheim-Museo.fi Archived 13 January 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
  44. ↑ Screen 2000, pp. 90–97.
  45. ↑ Mannerheim, Memoirs (1953).
  46. ↑ Screen 2000, p.104.
  47. ↑ Screen 2000, p. 112.
  48. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Sakari Virkkunen, "Presidents of Finland II" (Suomen presidentit II), published in Finland in 1994
  49. 1 2 3 4 5 Turtola (1994).
  50. ↑ Jacobsson (1999).
  51. ↑ Mannerheim 1954, p. 456.
  52. ↑ Helsingin Sanomat International Web-Edition – "Conversation secretly recorded in Finland helped a German actor prepare for Hitler role" Helsingin Sanomat / First published in print 15.9.2004 in Finnish.
  53. ↑ Recording available YLE's web-archive
  54. ↑ Mannerheim 1954, pp. 454–455.
  55. 1 2 3 4 5 Seppo Zetterberg et al., eds., "A Small Giant of Finnish History" (Suomen historian pikkujättiläinen), 2003
  56. ↑ Screen 2000, p. 205.
  57. ↑ Kinnunen et al, eds. (2011). Finland in World War II: History, Memory, Interpretations. p. 87. Retrieved 31 January 2014.
  58. ↑ Nenye, Vesa; Munter, Peter; Wirtanen, Toni; Birks, Chris (2016). Finland at War: the Continuation and Lapland Wars 1941–45. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1472815262.
  59. ↑ Meri (1990), p. 397.
  60. ↑ Screen 2000, p. 245.
  61. ↑ Screen 2000, p. 252.
  62. ↑ "Historique". Centre hospitalier universitaire vaudois. Retrieved 2018-02-24.
  63. ↑ Matti Klinge, transl. Roderick Fletcher. "Mannerheim, Gustaf (1867–1951) President of Finland, Marshal of Finland". Biografiakeskus. Retrieved 12 September 2013.
  64. ↑ "MANNERHEIM - Special Topics - Stamps". www.mannerheim.fi.
  65. ↑ "8-cent Mannerheim". 12 December 2008. Retrieved 18 August 2013.
  66. ↑ "50th Anniversary USA Champions of Liberty Mahatma Gandhi Stamp". 9 March 2011. Retrieved 18 August 2013.
  67. ↑ https://www.is.fi/musiikki/art-2000000486423.html
  68. ↑ http://www.mannerheim-museo.fi/gustaf-mannerheim-3/
  69. ↑ Mannerheim Internetprojekti, kunniamerkit valokuvineen (Finnish)
  70. ↑ No. 77, Nousevan Auringon Ritarikunnan I luokka Paulovniakukkasin, Japani, mannerheim.fi.

Bibliography

  • Mannerheim, Carl Gustaf Emil (1953). The Memoirs of Marshal Mannerheim. London: Cassell. OCLC 12424452.
  • Clements, Jonathan (2009). Mannerheim: President, Soldier, Spy. London: Haus Publishing. ISBN 978-1907822575.
  • 1999: Petteri Koskikallio, Asko Lehmuskallio, and Harry Halén. C. G. Mannerheim in Central Asia 1906–1908. Helsinki: National Board of Antiquities. ISBN 951-616-048-4.
  • Jacobsson, Max (1999). Century of Violence.
  • Jägerskiöld, Stig (1965). Nuori Mannerheim.
  • Jägerskiöld, Stig (1983). Mannerheim 1867–1951. Helsinki: Otava Publications.
  • Jägerskiöld, Stig (1986). Mannerheim: Marshal of Finland. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-8166-1527-6.
  • Meri, Veijo (1990). Suomen marsalkka C. G. Mannerheim.
  • Screen, J. E. O. (1993). Mannerheim: The Years of Preparation. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. ISBN 0-900966-22-X.
  • Screen, J. E. O. (2000). Mannerheim: The Finnish Years. London: Hurst. ISBN 1-85065-573-1.
  • 2010: Tamm, Eric Enno. The Horse That Leaps Through Clouds: A Tale of Espionage, the Silk Road and the Rise of Modern China. Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre. ISBN 978-1-55365-269-4.
  • 2000: William R. Trotter. A Frozen Hell: The Russo-Finnish Winter War of 1939–1940. ISBN 1-56512-249-6.
  • Turtola, Martti (1994). Risto Ryti: A Life for the Fatherland. Risto Ryti: Elämä isänmaan puolesta. Helsinki: Otava.
Regnal titles
Preceded by
Pehr Evind Svinhufvud		 Regent of Finland
1918–1919		 Succeeded by
Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg as President of the Republic
Political offices
Preceded by
Risto Ryti		 President of Finland
1944–1946		 Succeeded by
Juho Kusti Paasikivi
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