Pedogenesis

Clorpt is a mnemonic for American soil scientist Hans Jenny's state equation for the factors influencing soil formation:

S = f(cl, o, r, p, t, …)

• S soil formation
• cl (sometimes c) climate
• o organisms (soil microbiology, soil mesofauna, soil biology)
• r relief
• p parent material
• t time

Published in 1941, Jenny's state equation in Factors of Soil Formation differs from the Vasily Dokuchaev equation, treating time (t) as a factor, adding topographic relief (r), and pointedly leaving the ellipsis "open" for more factors (state variables) to be added as our understanding becomes more refined.

There are two principal methods that the state equation may be solved: first in a theoretical or conceptual manner by logical deductions from certain premises, and second empirically by experimentation or field observation. The empirical method is still mostly employed today, and soil formation can be defined by varying a single factor and keeping the other factors constant. This led to the development of empirical models to describe pedogenesis, such as climofunctions, biofunctions, topofunctions, lithofunctions, and chronofunctions. Since Hans Jenny published his formulation in 1941, it has been used by innumerable soil surveyors all over the world as a qualitative list for understanding the factors that may be important for producing the soil pattern within a region.[7]

Heat and moisture affect rates of biological activity and chemical reactions. Seasonal patterns of heat flux, water content and water movement influence the depth and pattern of removal (elluviation) and accumulation (illuviation) of soluble and colloidal constituents in soil. Climatic extremes, such as ice and wind, can cause physical weathering, soil erosion as well as deposition and accumulation of soil parent material. Stable, humid climates cause deep soil development. Soils are more developed in areas with higher rainfall and more warmth. Soils can develop faster in warmer climates. The rate of chemical weathering can nearly double for each 10 degrees Celsius increase in temperature. Climate also affects which organisms are present, affecting the soil chemically and physically (movement of roots). Soils with similar climate histories tend to produce similar soils.

Each soil has a unique combination of microbial, plant, animal and human influences acting upon it. Microorganisms are particularly influential in the mineral transformations critical to the soil forming process. Additionally, some bacteria can fix atmospheric nitrogen and some fungi are efficient at extracting deep soil phosphorus and increasing soil carbon levels in the form of glomalin. Plants hold soil against erosion, and accumulated plant material build soil humus levels. Plant root exudation supports microbial activity. Animals serve to decompose plant materials and mix soil through bioturbation.

The influence of man, and by association, fire, are state factors placed within the organisms state factor.[8] Man can import, or extract, nutrients and energy in ways that dramatically change soil formation. Accelerated soil erosion due to overgrazing, and Pre-Columbian terraforming the Amazon basin resulting in Terra Preta are two examples of the effects of man's management.

The organisms living in and on the soil form distinct soil types. Coniferous forests have acidic leaf litter that form soils classed as inceptisols. Mixed or deciduous forests leave a deeper layer of humus and tend to form soils classed as alfisols. Prairies have very high humus accumulation, which, along with bioturbation can create a dark, thick A horizon characteristic of mollisols.

Soil biology affects mineral weathering, and helps determine to what degree minerals leach from or accumulate in the soil. Biologically mediated chemical weathering can create striking differences in color stratification.

Distinct ecosystems produce distinct soils, sometimes in easily observable ways. For example, three species of land snails in the genus Euchondrus in the Negev desert are noted for eating lichens growing under the surface limestone rocks and slabs (endolithic lichens).[9] They disrupt and eat the limestone.[9] Their grazing results in the weathering of the stones, and the subsequent formation of soil.[9] They have a significant effect on the region: the total population of snails is estimated to process between 0.7 and 1.1 metric ton per hectare per year of limestone in the Negev desert.[9]

The effects of ancient ecosystems are not as easily observed, and this challenges the understanding of soil formation. For example, the chernozems of the North American tallgrass prairie have a humus fraction nearly half of which is charcoal. This outcome was not anticipated because the antecedent prairie fire ecology capable of producing these distinct deep rich black soils is not easily observed.[10]

The location of a soil on a landscape can affect how the climatic processes impact it. The geomorphic effects of relief and topography determine how soil is moved, distributed and retained within a watershed and across the landscape. Soil material is carried to lower elevations by water and with gravity. Bottom lands and low lands that retain and accumulate deposited soil will be deeper and richer with organic matter than their comparable uplands.

Soils at the bottom of a hill will get more water than soils on the slopes, and soils on the slopes that face the sun's path will be drier than soils on slopes that do not. Topography determines exposure to weather, fire, and other forces of man and nature. Mineral accumulations, plant nutrients, type of vegetation, vegetation growth, erosion, and water drainage are dependent on topographic relief.

Recurring patterns of topography result in toposequences or soil catenas. These patterns emerge from topographic differences in erosion, deposition, fertility, soil moisture, plant cover, other soil biology, fire-history, and exposure to the elements. These same differences are important to understanding natural history and when managing the land resource.

The primary material from which soil is formed is called parent material. Soil parent material could be bedrock, organic material, an old soil surface, or a deposit from water, wind, glaciers, volcanoes, or material moving down a slope.

All of the above factors assert themselves over time, often thousands of years. Soil profiles continually change from weakly developed to well developed over time. Chronosequences used in soil studies consist of sites that have developed over different periods of time with relatively small differences in other soil-forming factors. Such groups of sites are used to assess the influence of time as a factor in pedogenesis.[11]

Paleosols are soils formed during previous soil forming conditions.