Operation Shader

Two Royal Air Force (RAF) C-130J Hercules aircraft in Iraq, after being unloaded of vital humanitarian supplies on 9 September 2014.

On 9 August 2014, following the genocide of Yazidis and other ethnic minorities by ISIL in Northern Iraq, the British government deployed the Royal Air Force to conduct humanitarian aid airdrops. The first airdrop was conducted on 9 August, with two Lockheed C-130 Hercules aircraft, flying from RAF Akrotiri in Cyprus, airdropping bundles of aid into Mount Sinjar.[28][29] A second airdrop on 12 August had to be aborted due to a perceived risk of injury to civilians.[30] The airdrops were able to resume within 24 hours and two large consignments of aid were airdropped over Mount Sinjar.[31] During the same day, the Ministry of Defence announced the deployment of Tornado GR4 strike aircraft to help coordinate the airdrops using their LITENING III reconnaissance pods; they were not authorized to conduct any airstrikes prior to Parliamentary approval.[32] Four Chinook transport helicopters were also deployed alongside them to participate in any required refugee rescue missions.[33] On 13 August 2014, two C-130 Hercules aircraft dropped a third round of humanitarian aid into Mount Sinjar.[34] This was followed by a fourth and final round on 14 August, bringing the total number of humanitarian aid airdrops conducted by the RAF to seven.[35] The UK suspended its humanitarian aid airdrops on 14 August 2014 due to the "improved humanitarian situation" in Mount Sinjar.[36]

A Sentinel R1 taking off from RAF Akrotiri in support of Operation Shader.

On 16 August 2014, following the suspension of humanitarian aid airdrops, the RAF began shifting its focus from humanitarian relief to surveillance. The Tornado GR4s, which were previously used to help coordinate humanitarian aid airdrops, were re-tasked to gather vital intelligence for anti-ISIL forces. A RC-135 Rivet Joint signals intelligence aircraft was also deployed on what was the type's first operational deployment since entering service.[37] The aircraft was based at RAF Al Udeid in Qatar alongside American aircraft.[38][39] In addition to Tornado and Rivet Joint, the RAF also deployed Reaper, Sentinel, Shadow and Sentry aircraft to fly surveillance missions over Iraq and Syria.[40][41][42]

When asked whether the country would participate in airstrikes or send ground troops, Defence Secretary Michael Fallon stated: "We have not been asked to commit either combat troops on the ground – and we are not going to do that – and we have not been asked to join in other air strikes though we certainly welcome [them]".[43]

A Voyager tanker refuels two Tornado GR4s over Iraq on 4 March 2015.

On 20 September 2014, Iraq presented a letter to the UN Security Council (of which the United Kingdom is a permanent member) calling for military assistance in its fight against ISIL, echoing calls they made at the Paris conference on 15 September.[44]

On 26 September 2014, Prime Minister David Cameron recalled Parliament to debate the authorisation of British airstrikes against ISIL in Iraq. Cameron insisted that intervention, at the request of the Iraqi government, to combat a "brutal terrorist organisation" was "morally justified". He went on to state that ISIL was a "direct threat to the United Kingdom" and that British inaction would lead to "more killing" in Iraq. Following a seven-hour debate, Parliament voted overwhelmingly in favour of airstrikes, with 524 votes in favour and 43 against.[45][46] The 43 ‘No’ votes came from 23 Labour MPs, six Conservative MPs, five Scottish National Party MPs, three Social Democratic and Labour Party MPs, two Plaid Cymru MPs, one Liberal Democrat MP, one Green Party MP, and one Respect Party MP.[45] Following the vote, Defence Secretary Michael Fallon told the BBC that the priority would be to stop the slaughter of civilians in Iraq, and that the UK and its allies would be guided by Iraqi and Kurdish intelligence in identifying targets.[45]

A Tornado GR4 returns to RAF Akrotiri after the first airstrikes on 30 September 2014.

A Tornado GR4 destroys an ISIL armoured vehicle in Al Qaim on 2 November 2014.

A Typhoon FGR4 is refueled over Iraq by the U.S. Air Force on 22 December 2015.

The Royal Air Force began conducting armed sorties over Iraq immediately after parliamentary approval, using its six Tornado GR4s stationed at RAF Akrotiri in Cyprus.[47] The first airstrike took place on 30 September 2014, when a pair of Tornado GR4s attacked an ISIL heavy weapons position using a Paveway IV laser-guided bomb and an armed pickup truck using a Brimstone missile. The Ministry of Defence began publishing a chronological list of all airstrikes conducted in the country, which it made available to view online.[48]

On 3 October 2014, the six Tornado GR4s were bolstered by an additional two aircraft, bringing the total number of combat aircraft supporting the operation to eight.[49] During the same day, it was reported that the Royal Navy had tasked Type 45 destroyer HMS Defender to escort the U.S. Navy aircraft carrier USS George H.W. Bush (CVN-77) whilst the ship launched aircraft into Iraq and Syria.[17]

On 16 October 2014, the Ministry of Defence announced the deployment of an undisclosed number of MQ-9 Reaper unmanned combat aerial vehicles to assist with surveillance.[50] Defence Secretary Michael Fallon stated that the Reapers could also conduct airstrikes alongside the Tornado GR4s, if needed.[50] The first airstrike conducted by a Reaper occurred on 10 November 2014.[51] By 26 September 2015, a full year after the operation first began, Tornado and Reaper aircraft had flown over 1,300 missions against ISIL and had conducted more than 300 airstrikes, killing more than 330 ISIL fighters.[1][52][53]

According to Fallon, the UK had conducted a "huge number of missions" over Iraq by 13 December 2014, a number which was "second only to the United States" and "five times as many as France".[24] By 5 February 2015, the UK had contributed 6% of all coalition airstrikes in Iraq – a contribution second only to the United States – which the Defence Select Committee nevertheless described as "modest".[54][55]

On 14 March 2017, Forces.net reported that the RAF had conducted more than 1,253 airstrikes in Iraq, a number which remained second only to the United States.[23]

After a nine-month period of no airstrikes, they resumed once again on 10 April 2020 when two Eurofighter Typhoons, together with an MQ-9 Reaper, identified and engaged ISIL forces in Iraq, about 200 km north of Baghdad.[56]

In October 2014, the British Government agreed to send 12 members of the 2nd Battalion, The Yorkshire Regiment (2 YORKS) into Irbil to train Peshmerga on how to use UK-supplied heavy machine guns.[57] The number of British troops involved in this training mission eventually rose from 12 to 50 before being bolstered by an additional batch of British troops numbering in the "low hundreds".[24] It was also disclosed that a small team of "combat-ready" troops were sent along with them to provide force protection.[24] By 2016, an additional 30 troops were deployed to train Iraqi forces, which brought the total number of deployed British troops in Iraq to 300.[58] The British Army had also trained over 31,000 Iraqi and Peshmerga fighters.[59]

In 2016, a squadron of up to 80 Royal Engineers was deployed to help construct better training facilities at the Al Asad Airbase.[59] This was followed by a six month deployment of 44 Royal Engineers of 5 Armoured Engineer Squadron, 22 Engineer Regiment to Al Asad Airbase in 2017. This brought the number of British personnel at the base to more than 300 and the total in Iraq to around 600.[60]

In January 2017, the BBC reported that L/Cpl Scott Hetherington died in a "shooting accident" at Camp Taji, Iraq. Hetherington was a member of Blenheim Company, and the Force Protection Platoon, 2nd Battalion Duke of Lancaster's Regiment; he was the first British soldier to die in Iraq in almost eight years. About 150 soldiers from the battalion were being deployed to Iraq for a period of six months, forming part of a 500-strong force being sent to train Iraqi and Kurdish security forces.[9]

Following the Baghdad International Airport airstrike in January 2020, the British Army training mission in Iraq was temporarily suspended due to safety concerns.[61]

In March 2020, a rocket attack on an Iraqi military base, hosting British and American military personnel, resulted in the death of three soldiers, including one Briton. She was later identified as L/Cpl Brodie Gillon of the Royal Army Medical Corps and reservist of the Scottish and North Irish Yeomanry.[62] During the same month, the training mission remained suspended and had been scaled down in response to the COVID-19 pandemic.[63]

In 2014, Defence Secretary Michael Fallon disclosed during an interview that members of the 2nd Battalion, The Yorkshire Regiment (2 YORKS) had been deployed on the ground in Irbil to help secure the area for a possible helicopter rescue mission. The battalion, which at the time was the Cyprus-based Theatre Reserve Battalion (TRB) for Operation Herrick in Afghanistan, had left Irbil within 24 hours.[64]

In October 2014, Peshmerga claimed they had received assistance from UK Special Forces.[65]

Prior to Operation Shader, the House of Commons voted on whether or not take military action against the Syrian Government in response to the Ghouta chemical attack in 2013. The House voted against taking military action — the first time a British government had been blocked from taking military action by Parliament.[66] Whilst the outcome was widely reported as a defeat for Prime Minister David Cameron, a spokesman for the Prime Minister nevertheless stated that he had "not ruled anything out" in relation to airstrikes against ISIL.[67] Cameron later elaborated that there was a case for airstrikes in Syria but conceded that any airstrikes would require another House of Commons vote unless it was to prevent a humanitarian catastrophe.[68]

In 2013, two British aid workers, David Haines and Alan Henning, were kidnapped by armed groups in two separate incidents in Syria whilst carrying out humanitarian aid work. In September 2014, ISIL executed an American hostage and threatened to execute Haines if the United States did not end its military interventions in Iraq and Syria. Prime Minister David Cameron condemned the terrorists and stated the UK would "never give into terrorism", adding that ISIL would "be squeezed out of existence".[69][70] ISIL subsequently released a video of Haines being beheaded by an ISIL executioner — an as-yet unidentified British national which the media named Jihadi John. Cameron reacted by stating: "We will do everything in our power to hunt down these murderers and ensure they face justice, however long it takes."[71] An intense manhunt involving MI5, Scotland Yard and the CIA began in an effort to identify John. In October 2014, John executed Henning in retaliation for the UK carrying out airstrikes in Iraq.[72] John was subsequently identified as Mohammed Emwazi, a Kuwati-born British national who previously lived in London.

In 2014, the Ministry of Defence confirmed that surveillance missions were being flown over Syria by the Royal Air Force, including via MQ-9 Reaper drones based in Cyprus.[73][42] In November, a U.S. drone strike targeted and killed Emwazi in Raqqa with support from the Royal Air Force. Prime Minister David Cameron confirmed his death and stated it was an "act of self-defence" achieved through working “hand in glove, round the clock” with the United States.[74]

In 2015, Cameron made repeated calls for airstrikes in Syria following the 2015 Sousse attacks which were perpetrated by ISIL and left 30 Britons dead. These calls were echoed by the Defence Secretary, Michael Fallon, who claimed that there was an "illogicality" of British forces observing the Iraq-Syria border whilst ISIL did not. Fallon stated that the UK did not need the backing of Parliament to launch airstrikes in Syria but the House of Commons would have the final say.[75] The Prime Minister later stated that the UK was committed to destroying the caliphate in both Iraq and Syria.[76] It later emerged that British pilots were taking part in airstrikes in Syria whilst embedded with U.S. and Canadian forces.[77][78] However, British forces themselves remained committed to surveillance and, by November, its Reaper drones had been responsible for 30% of all coalition aerial surveillance in Syria.[79]

An RAF MQ-9 Reaper, similar to the one used in the strike against Rayeed Khan and Rahoul Amin in Syria.

In September 2015, Prime Minister David Cameron announced that two British-born Islamic State fighters, Rayeed Khan and Rahoul Amin, were targeted and killed in Syria by a Royal Air Force Reaper drone. During a statement in Parliament, the Prime Minister explained that it was a "lawful act of self defence" as the two fighters had been plotting attacks against the United Kingdom.[80] The Ministry of Defence later clarified that the strike was not part of Operation Shader.[81]

In November 2015, following the November 2015 Paris attacks and the adoption of United Nations Security Council Resolution 2249, David Cameron made his first case to Parliament for the UK to conduct airstrikes against ISIL in Syria. He argued that the United Kingdom would be safer by conducting airstrikes and that the UK could not outsource its security to allies. The Prime Minister went on to state that he would not hold a vote on airstrikes until he was sure he could win it.[82][83] In the days following, French President François Hollande and French Defense Secretary Jean-Yves Le Drian made calls for Britain to join airstrikes.[84] This was followed by an appeal from the Russian Ambassador to the UK, Alexander Vladimirovich Yakovenko.[85]

In December 2015, the House of Commons held a ten-hour debate on participating in airstrikes against ISIL in Syria with a final vote. The debate ended with 397 votes in favour of airstrikes and 223 against.[86][87][88] Hours after the vote, four Tornado GR4 strike aircraft left Cyprus and attacked ISIL positions in Syria for the first time, aided by a Voyager aerial refueling tanker and an MQ-9 Reaper drone. The aircraft attacked Omar oilfield in Eastern Syria, one of the largest sources of financial income for ISIL.[51][89] Defence Secretary Michael Fallon subsequently announced that the Royal Air Force would be "doubling its strike force" with six Eurofighter Typhoon multirole fighters and two more Tornado GR4 strike aircraft.[90]

Forces.net reported that as of 14 March 2017, Britain had carried out 85 strikes in Syria, a number second only to the United States.[23]

The Ministry of Defence has published a chronological list of all airstrikes since they began which is available to view on their website.[48]

In 2016, a team of 75 British military trainers was deployed to Turkey and other nearby countries in the anti-ISIL coalition to assist with the U.S.-led training programme in Syria. The training programme provided small arms, infantry tactics and medical training to Syrian moderate opposition forces for over three years.[40] Additionally, British forces reportedly helped in the building up of a mechanised battalion in Southern Syria, consisting of tribal fighters to combat Bashar al-Assad's army.[91]

In May 2015, surveillance by UK Special Forces had reportedly confirmed the presence of a senior ISIL leader, named Abu Sayyaf, in al-Amr, Syria, after which U.S. Special Operations Forces conducted an operation to capture him. The operation resulted in his death and the capture of his wife Umm Sayyaf.[92] During the same year, UK Special Forces reportedly killed six ISIL fighters during a rescue operation.[93] It was also reported that the UK had supplied anti-ISIL forces with 500,000 rounds of ammunition.[1]

In 2016, The Telegraph reported that UK Special Forces had been operating on the frontline in Syria; in particular in May when they frequently crossed the border from Jordan to support a New Syrian Army unit composed of former Syrian Special Forces defending the village of al-Tanf against ISIL attacks. The New Syrian Army captured the village in that month and faced regular ISIL attacks. British forces also helped rebuild the base following a suicide attack.[94] The New Syrian Army acknowledged that UK Special Forces had provided training, weapons and other equipment; an independent source confirmed that UK Special Forces were operating against ISIL in Syria, Iraq and Libya.[95] In August, BBC News released exclusive images showing UK Special Forces operating in Syria.[96] The pictures, which dated from June, were taken following an attack by ISIL on the New Syrian Army base of Al Tanaf and appear to be showing UK Special Forces securing the base's perimeter.[95][97] UK Special Forces in Syria were reportedly engaged in wide-ranging roles that included surveillance, advisory and combat, in relatively small numbers.[95]

In 2018, a member of UK Special Forces was killed, along with an American soldier, by an improvised explosive device in Syria. This was the first British soldier to die in combat with ISIL.[98]

In 2019, two British special forces soldiers were reportedly injured in an attack carried out by ISIL while supporting the Syrian Democratic Forces' Deir ez-Zor campaign; one Kurd also died.[99]

The British Army had a total of 1,920 personnel deployed in 2018.[113] This included at least one infantry battalion on a six-month rotation to provide training support and force protection. The units involved have periodically included:

• 2nd Battalion, The Yorkshire Regiment (2 YORKS) (during 2014)[64][114]
• 2nd Battalion, The Princess of Wales's Royal Regiment (2 PWRR) (during 2015)[115][116]
• 1st Battalion, The Rifles (1 RIFLES) (July 2015 – December 2016)[117]
• 4th Battalion, The Rifles (October 2016 – March 2017)[118]
• 2nd Battalion, The Duke of Lancaster's Regiment (2 LANCS) (December 2016 – July 2017)[119][120]
• The Highlanders, 4th Battalion, Royal Regiment of Scotland (4 SCOTS) (July 2017 – December 2017)[121][122]
• The Royal Highland Fusiliers, 2nd Battalion, The Royal Regiment of Scotland (2 SCOTS) (December 2017 – June 2018).[123][124]
• 5 Armoured Engineer Squadron, 22 Engineer Regiment (during 2017)[110]
• 2nd Battalion, The Rifles (2 RIFLES) (July 2017 – January 2018)[125]
• 3nd Battalion, The Rifles (3 RIFLES) (January 2018 – July 2018)[125][126]
• 1st Battalion, Grenadier Guards (June 2018 – November 2018)[127]
• 1st Battalion, Irish Guards (2020)[128]

• Headquarters No. 83 Expeditionary Air Group
• No. 903 Expeditionary Air Wing[42][115] at RAF Akrotiri in Cyprus comprising:
  • Elements of the RAF Typhoon Force (9 x Typhoon FGR.4 multirole fighter aircraft (6 active, 3 reserve))[129][130]
  • Elements of the RAF Lightning Force (6 x F-35B Lightning)[131]
  • Elements of the RAF Air Mobility Force:
    • 1 x Lockheed C-130 Hercules transport aircraft[34]
    • 2 x Voyager KC3 tanker aircraft[132][133][134]
  • Elements of the RAF ISTAR Force:
    • 2 x Sentinel R1 ISTAR aircraft from No. V(AC) Squadron[40]
    • 2 x Sentry AEW1 AEW&C aircraft from No. 8 Squadron[42][135]
• Elements of No. 13 Squadron and No. 39 Squadron (10 x MQ-9A Reaper unmanned combat aerial vehicles stationed in Kuwait)[41][136]
• Elements of No. LXX Squadron (1 x Atlas C1 transport aircraft)[137]
• Elements of No. 99 Squadron (1 x C-17A Globemaster III transport aircraft)[138]
• Elements of No. 51 Squadron (2 x RC-135W Airseeker reconnaissance aircraft stationed at RAF Al Udeid in Qatar)[40][139]
• Elements of No 14 Squadron (1 x Shadow R1 reconnaissance aircraft)[41]
• Elements of the RAF Police
• Elements of No. 51 Squadron RAF Regiment[140]
• Elements of No II Squadron RAF Regiment

Withdrawn assets

• 4 x Chinook HC4 transport helicopters[33] (withdrawn during 2014)[132]
• 1 x Lockheed C-130 Hercules transport aircraft (withdrawn during 2014)[132]
• 8 x Tornado GR4 strike aircraft (withdrawn during February 2019)[32][49][141]

• Type 45 destroyer HMS Daring
  • Between August 2016 to present.[142]
• Type 45 destroyer HMS Duncan
  • Between July[143] and December 2015[144]
• Type 45 destroyer HMS Defender
  • Between October[17] and 12 December 2014.[145]
  • Between December 2015 and 6 July 2016.[146]
• Type 45 destroyer HMS Dauntless
  • Between January[147] and 15 May 2015.[148]
• Type 45 destroyer HMS Diamond
  • Since September 2018.[149]
• Type 23 frigate HMS Kent
  • Between December 2014[150] and 15 May 2015.[148]
• Type 23 frigate HMS Richmond[151]
• Type 23 frigate HMS St Albans from December 2015.[152]
• Astute-class or Trafalgar-class Unnamed nuclear-powered attack submarine[153]
• Fort Victoria-class replenishment oiler RFA Fort Victoria[154]
• Sea King ASaC7 helicopters[154]

• United Kingdom Special Forces (UKSF)[155][156]

On 26 September 2014, prior to the parliamentary vote on airstrikes in Iraq, Labour Party MP and Shadow Education Minister, Rushanara Ali, wrote to Labour Leader Ed Miliband to announce her resignation as Shadow Minister, in advance of her deliberate abstention in the vote. She wrote that, while acknowledging the "horrific and barbaric" actions of ISIL, she was concerned that British military action would create further bloodshed in Iraq. Rushanara, Bangladesh-born and Muslim, wrote that "there is a genuine belief in Muslim and non-Muslim communities that military action will only create further bloodshed and further pain for the people of Iraq". She added that she had no confidence that the potential impact of such military action on radicalization in the UK had been properly thought through.[157][158]

Anti-war groups, including Stop the War Coalition (StWC), planned a protest march through London on 4 October 2014 in response to Operation Shader. A spokesman of StWC said "All evidence shows that all interventions will just cause more violence". The StWC website argued that the previous two interventions in Iraq had "helped create the current chaos".[159] StWC held another protest in London on 1 December 2015, ahead of the parliamentary vote on airstrikes in Syria.[160]

On 3 December 2015, it was reported that several Labour Party MPs had received death threats and abuse for their support for airstrikes in Syria.[161]

The United States welcomed the UK's involvement in the anti-ISIL coalition, with President Barack Obama stating: "Since the beginning of the counter-ISIL campaign the United Kingdom has been one of our most valued partners".[162] Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov stated he welcomed British airstrikes in Syria, adding "more universal efforts against Islamic State would be more effective".[163] Russian Ambassador to the United Kingdom, Alexander Vladimirovich Yakovenko, made calls for British airstrikes in Iraq.[85]

On 3 October 2014, ISIL executed British aid worker Alan Henning in response to British airstrikes in Iraq.[72] The group has also claimed responsibility for several terrorist attacks, including the 2017 Manchester Arena bombing and Westminster attack, which it claimed were in retaliation for British military action in the Middle East.[164][165][166] In the same year, ISIL also claimed responsibility for the Parsons Green train bombing, with the assailant previously blaming his father's death in Iraq on the UK.[167] ISIL claimed responsibility for the 2020 Streatham stabbing, stating it was in response to its calls to "attack citizens of coalition countries".[168]