Lithuanization

Map of the Polish population of Lithuania, based on early-1920s data

The Lithuanian annexation of Ruthenian lands between the 13th and 15th centuries was accompanied by some Lithuanization. A large part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania remained Ruthenian; due to religious, linguistic and cultural dissimilarity, there was less assimilation between the ruling nobility of the pagan Lithuanians and the conquered Orthodox East Slavs. After the military and diplomatic expansion of the duchy into Ruthenian (Kievan Rus') lands, local leaders retained autonomy which limited the amalgamation of cultures.[1] When some localities received appointed Gediminids (rulers), the Lithuanian nobility in Ruthenia largely embraced Slavic customs and Orthodox Christianity and became indistinguishable from Ruthenian nobility. The cultures merged; many upper-class Ruthenians merged with the Lithuanian nobility and began to call themselves Lithuanians (Litvins) gente Rutenus natione Lituanus,[2][3] but still spoke Ruthenian.[4][5][6] The Lithuanian nobility became largely Ruthenian,[7] and the nobility of ethnic Lithuania and Samogitia continued to use their native Lithuanian language. It adapted Old Church Slavonic and (later) the Ruthenian language, and acquired main-chancery-language status in local matters and relations with other Orthodox principalities as a lingua franca; Latin was used in relations with Western Europe.[8] It was gradually reversed by the Polonization of Lithuania beginning in the 15th century[7] and the 19th- and early-20th-century Russification of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.[9]

A notable example of Lithuanization was the 19th-century replacement of Jews (many Lithuanian Jews, but also Polish Jews), until then the largest ethnic group in Lithuania's major towns (with ethnic Lithuanians migrating from the countryside. Lithuanization was primarily demographic, rather than institutionalized.[10] When Lithuania became an independent state after World War I, its government institutionalized Lithuanization.[11][12]

Interwar Lithuanian propaganda poster depicting Gediminas' Tower, urging Lithuanians not to forget the lost Vilnius Region

Around the time of Lithuanian independence, the country began moving toward the cultural and linguistic assimilation of large groups of non-Lithuanian citizens (primarily Poles and Germans).[13] The Lithuanian government was initially democratic, and protected the cultural traditions of other ethnic groups; a 1917 Vilnius Conference resolution promised national minorities cultural freedom.[14] After World War I, the Council of Lithuania (the government's legislative branch) was expanded to include Jewish and Belarusian representatives.[15] The first Lithuanian governments included ministries for Jewish and Belarusian affairs;[16] when the Vilnius Region was detached from the country after Żeligowski's Mutiny, however, the largest communities of Belarusians, Jews, and Poles ended up outside Lithuania and the special ministries were abolished.[17] In 1920, Lithuania's Jewish community was granted national and cultural autonomy with the right to legislate binding ordinances; however, partly due to internal strife between Hebrew and Yiddish groups their autonomy was terminated in 1924.[18] The Jews were increasingly marginalized and alienated by the "Lithuania for Lithuanians" policy.[19]

As Lithuania established its independence and its nationalistic attitudes strengthened, the state sought to increase the use of Lithuanian in public life.[20] Among the government's measures was a forced Lithuanization of non-Lithuanian names.[21] The largest minority-school network was operated by the Jewish community; there were 49 Jewish grammar schools in 1919, 107 in 1923, and 144 in 1928.[17] In 1931, partially due to consolidation, the number of schools decreased to 115 and remained stable until 1940.[17]

Interwar anti-Polish cartoon

At the beginning of 1920, Lithuania had 20 Polish language schools for Poles in Lithuania. The number increased to 30 in 1923, but fell to 24 in 1926.[17] The main reason for the decrease was the policy of Lithuanian Christian Democratic Party, which transferred students whose parents had "Lithuania" as their nationality on their passports to Lithuanian schools.[17] After the party lost control, the number of schools increased to 91. Soon after the 1926 coup d'état, nationalists led by Antanas Smetona came to power. The nationalists decided to ban attendance at Polish schools by Lithuanians; children from mixed families were forced to attend Lithuanian schools. Many Poles in Lithuania were identified as Lithuanians on their passports, and were forced to attend Lithuanian schools. The number of Polish schools decreased to nine in 1940.[17] In 1936, a law was passed which allowed a student to attend Polish school only if both parents were Poles.[20] This resulted in unaccredited schools, which numbered over 40 in 1935 and were largely sponsored by Pochodnia.[17][20] A similar situation developed concerning German schools in the Klaipėda Region.[22][23]

Lithuanian attitudes towards ethnic Poles were influenced by the concept of treating them as native Lithuanians who were Polonized over several centuries and needed to return to their "true identity".[24][25][26][27] Another major factor was the tense relationship between Lithuania and Poland about the Vilnius Region and cultural (or educational) restrictions on Lithuanians there; in 1927, the Lithuanian Education Society Rytas chairman and 15 teachers were arrested and 47 schools closed.[28]

Although the Lithuanian constitution guaranteed equal rights to all religions, the government confiscated Orthodox churches (some of which had been converted from Catholic churches). Former Eastern Catholic Churches were confiscated as well, including the Kruonis Orthodox church. Thirteen Orthodox churches were demolished.[29]

Another target group for discrimination was the Poles; anti-Polish sentiment had appeared since the Lithuanian National Revival. Although the revival was positive in some respects, it became aggressively intolerant of Poles and Polish culture.[30] Such attitudes became widespread.[30] Nationalistic Lithuanian Catholic priests (Litwomans) promoted the Lithuanian language over Polish, which in many places had been used for centuries in church services.[30] Anti-Polish propaganda was sponsored by the government; during the interwar period, caricatures and propaganda were published attacking Poles and depicting them as criminals or vagabonds.

In modern Lithuania, which has been independent since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Lithuanization is not an official state policy. It is advocated by extremist groups such as Vilnija, however, whose activities create tension in Polish-Lithuanian relations.[24][31][32][33] Lithuanization promoted the cooperation of Polish and Russian minorities, who support the Electoral Action of Poles in Lithuania.

The state enforces the removal of Polish or bilingual street signs, including those on private property. A Polish-Lithuanian woman protested when her last name (Wardyn) was Lithuanized to Vardyn.[34] In 2014 Šalčininkai District Municipality administrative director Boleslav Daškevič was fined about €12,500 for failing to execute a court ruling to remove Lithuanian-Polish traffic signs.[35] Liucyna Kotlovska was fined about 1738 Euro.[36] Bilingual Polish schools went on strike in September 2015,[37] organised by the Electoral Action of Poles in Lithuania.[38]

• Ethnographic Lithuania
• Republic of Central Lithuania