List of Etruscan mythological figures

This is a list of deities and legendary figures found in the Etruscan mythology.

The names below were taken mainly from Etruscan "picture bilinguals", which are Etruscan call-outs on art depicting mythological scenes or motifs. Several different media provide names. Variants of the names are given, reflecting differences in language in different localities and times.

Many of the names are Etruscan spellings (and pronunciations) of Greek names. The themes may or may not be entirely Greek. Etruscans frequently added their own themes to Greek myths. The same may be said of native Italic names rendered into Etruscan. Some names are entirely Etruscan. Which is often a topic of debate in the international forum of scholarship.

Deities
Deity Description
AchlaeGreek river god, Achelous.[1]
Achvizr, Achuvesr, Achuvizr, AchviztrUnknown character associated with Turan.[2] It may be one of the Samothracian Great Gods or Cabeiri (Άξίερος, perhaps from *Aχsiver-) according to É. Benveniste.[3]
Aita, EitaThe Etruscan equivalent of the Greek god of the underworld and ruler of the dead, Hades.[2]
Alpanu, Alpan, AlpnuEtruscan goddess, whose name is identical to Etruscan "willingly."[2]
AminthEtruscan winged deity in the form of a child, probably identified with Amor.[4]
AniDivinity named on the periphery of the Piacenza Liver as dominant in that section. It seems to correspond to Martianus Capella's Templum I, north, ruled by Janus, for which Ani appears to be the Etruscan word.[5]
Apulu, ApluThe god, Apollo.[4]
ApruAlternate Etruscan spelling of Aphrodite. See Turan.[6]
ArilEtruscan deity identified with Atlas.[4]
Aritimi, ArtumesThe goddess Artemis.[4]
AthrpaThe deity, Atropos.[4]
CaluEtruscan infernal god of wolves, represented by a wolf.[7]
Catha, Cavtha, CathAn Etruscan deity, god and goddess, not well represented in the art. She appears in the expression ati cath, "Mother Cath"[8] and also maru Cathsc, "the maru of Cath". However, the nature of the maru is not known. She is also called śech, "daughter,"[9] which seems to fit Martianus Capella's identification of the ruler of Region VI of the sky as Celeritas solis filia, "Celerity the daughter of the sun." In the Piacenza Liver the corresponding region is ruled by Cath.[10]
CelEtruscan earth goddess, probably identified with Ge, as she had a giant for a son. Her name occurs in the expression ati Cel, "Mother Cel."[8]
CrapstiUmbrian local deity, Grabouie.[11]
CulsansGod of doors and doorways, corresponding to the two-faced Roman god Janus.
EnieGreek Enyo, one of the Graeae.[12]
Erisdivinity Eris.[13]
Erusdivinity Eros.[13]
Esplacelegendary healer, Asklepios.[13]
Ethausva, EthEtruscan goddess, attendant at the birth of Menrva.[13]
Euturpa, EuterpeThe Greek divinity, Euterpe.[13]
FeroniaAn obscure rural goddess primarily known from the various Roman cults who worshipped her.[14]
FuflunsEtruscan god of wine, identified with Dionysus. The name is used in the expressions Fufluns Pacha (Bacchus) and Fufluns Pachie.[13][15] Puplona (Populonia) was named from Fufluns.[16]
HortaGoddess of agriculture (highly conjectural).
IlithiiaThe goddess of childbirth, known to the Greeks as Eileithyia. Occurs also in the expression flereś atis ilithiial, "statue of mother Eileithyia."[17]
LaranEtruscan God of war.[18]
LasaOne of a class of deities, plural Lasas, mainly female, but sometimes male, from which the Roman Lares came. Where the latter were the guardians of the dead, the Etruscan originals formed the court of Turan. Lasa often precedes an epithet referring to a particular deity: Lasa Sitmica, Lasa Achununa, Lasa Racuneta, Lasa Thimrae, Lasa Vecuvia.[18]
Lasa VecuviaGoddess of prophecy, associated with the nymph Vegoia.[18] See under Begoë.
LeinthEtruscan divinity, male and female,[19] possibly related to lein, Etruscan word for "to die", but does not appear in any death scenes.[18]
Letham, Lethns, Letha, Lethms, LetaAn Etruscan infernal goddess.[18]
LetunThe goddess known to the Greeks as Leto.[18]
MalavischEtruscan divinity of the mirrors, probably from malena, "mirror."[20]
ManiaEtruscan infernal deity, one of a dyad including Mantus.[21] She went on into Latin literature, ruling beside Mantus and was reported to be the mother of the Lares and Manes.[22] Under the Etruscan kings, she received the sacrifices of slain children during the Laralia festival of May 1.[23]
MantusEtruscan infernal deity, one of a dyad including Mania.[21] A tradition of Latin literature[24] names the Etruscan city of Manthua, later Mantua, after the deity.[16]
MariśA class of divinity used with epithets: mariś turans, mariś husurnana, mariś menitla, mariś halna, mariś isminthians. The appearances in art are varied: a man, a youth, a group of babies cared for by Menrva.[20] The Roman god, Mars, is believed to have come from this name. Pallottino refers to the formation of a god by "... fusing groups of beings ... into one." Of Mars he says "... the protecting spirits of war, represented as armed heroes, tend to coalesce into a single deity, the Etrusco-Roman Mars, on the model of the Greek god Ares."[25]
Mean, MeanpeEtruscan deity, equivalent of Nike or Victoria.[20]
Menerva, MenrvaThe Etruscan original to the Roman Minerva, made into Greek Athena.[20]
MunthukhGoddess of love and health, and one of the attendants of Turan
NethunsItalic divinity, probably Umbrian, of springs and water,[26] identified with Greek Poseidon and Roman Neptune, from which the name comes.[27] It occurs in the expression flere Nethuns, "the divinity of Nethuns."[28]
NortiaGoddess of fate and chance. Unattested in Etruscan texts but mentioned by Roman historian Livy.[29] Her attribute was a nail, which was driven into a wall in her temple during the Etruscan new year festival as a fertility rite.
OrcusEtruscan god of the underworld, punisher of broken oaths. He was portrayed in paintings in Etruscan tombs as a hairy, bearded giant.
PachaRoman Bacchus, an epithet of Fufluns.[26]
PemphetruGreek Pemphredo, one of the Graeae.[12]
Phersipnai, Phersipnei, Persipnei, ProserpnaiQueen of the underworld, equivalent to the Greek Persephone and Roman Proserpina.[12]
PhersuA divinity of the mask, probably from Greek prosopon, "face".[30] The god becomes adjectival, *phersuna, from which Latin persona.[12]
PrumatheThe Greek mythological figure Prometheus.[31]
RathEtruscan deity identified with Apollo. Tarquinia was his sanctuary.[31]
SatreEtruscan deity, source of the Roman god, Saturn.[31]
SelvansGod who appears in the expression Selvansl Tularias, "Selvans of the boundaries", which identifies him as a god of boundaries. The name is either borrowed from the Roman god, Silvanus or the original source of the Roman god's name.[32]
SethlansEtruscan blacksmith and craftsman God, often wielding an axe. Equivalent to the Greek Hephaistos and Roman Vulcanus.[32]
SummanusEtruscan God of Nocturnal Thunder, often said to be Zeus's twin or opposite.
SvutafA winged Etruscan deity whose name, if from the same Latin root as the second segment of persuade, might mean "yearning" and therefore be identifiable with Eros.[32]
TecumGod of the lucomenes, or ruling class.
Thalna, Thalana, TalnaEtruscan divine figure of multiple roles shown male, female and androgynous. They attend the births of Menrva and Fufluns, dance as a Maenad and expound prophecy. In Greek thallein, "to bloom". A number of divinities fit the etymology: Greek Thallo and Hebe and Roman Iuventas, "youth."[33][34]
ThanrAn Etruscan deity shown present at the births of deities.[33]
ThesanEtruscan goddess of the dawn. She was identified with the Roman Aurora and Greek Eos.[33]
ThetlvmthUnknown deity of the Piacenza Liver, which is not a picture bilingual.[35]
ThuflthaUnknown deity of the Piacenza Liver, which is not a picture bilingual.[35]
Tinia, Tina, TinChief Etruscan god, the ruler of the skies, husband of Uni, and father of Hercle, identified with the Greek Zeus and Roman Jupiter well within the Etruscan window of ascendance, as the Etruscan kings built the first temple of Jupiter at Rome. Called apa, "father" in inscriptions (parallel to the -piter in Ju-piter), he has most of the attributes of his Indo-European counterpart, with whom some have postulated a more remote linguistic connection.[36] The name means "day" in Etruscan. He is the god of boundaries and justice. He is depicted as a young, bearded male, seated or standing at the center of the scene, grasping a stock of thunderbolts. According to Latin literature, the bolts are of three types: for warning, good or bad interventions, and drastic catastrophes.[37] Unlike Zeus, Tin needs the permission of the Dii Consentes (consultant gods) and Dii Involuti (hidden gods) to wield the last two categories. A further epithet, Calusna (of Calu), hints at a connection to wolves or dogs and the underworld.[37]
Tiur, Tivr, TivEtruscan deity identified with Greek Selene and Roman Luna (goddess).[38]
Tlusc, Tluscv, Mar TluscUnknown deity of the Piacenza Liver, which is not a picture bilingual.[35][39] The corresponding region in Martianus Capella is ruled by Sancus, an Italic god and Sabine progenitor, who had a temple on the Quirinal Hill, and appears on an Etruscan boundary stone in the expression Selvans Sanchuneta, in which Sanchuneta seems to refer to the oaths establishing the boundary. Sancus probably comes from Latin sancire, "to ratify an oath."[40]
TuranEtruscan goddess identified with Greek Aphrodite and Roman Venus. She appears in the expression, Turan ati, "Mother Turan", equivalent to Venus Genetrix.[41] Her name is a noun meaning "the act of giving" in Etruscan, based on the verb stem Tur- 'to give.'
Turms, TurmśEtruscan god identified with Greek Hermes and Roman Mercurius. In his capacity as guide to the ghost of Tiresias, who has been summoned by Odysseus, he is Turms Aitas, "Turms Hades."[41]
TurnuAn Etruscan deity, a type of Eros, child of Turan.[41]
TV[?]thUnknown deity of the Piacenza Liver, which is not a picture bilingual.[35]
UniSupreme goddess of the Etruscan pantheon, wife of Tinia, mother of Hercle, and patroness of Perugia. With Tinia and Menrva, she was a member of the ruling triad of Etruscan deities. Uni was the equivalent of the Roman Juno, whose name Uni may be derived from, and the Greek Hera.
UsilEtruscan deity identified with Greek Helios, Roman Sol.[38]
VeaEtruscan divinity, possibly taking its name from the city of Veii or vice versa.[42]
Veltha, Velthume, Vethune, VeltuneEtruscan deity, possible state god of the Etruscan league of Etruria, the Voltumna in the Latin expression Fanum Voltumnae, "shrine of Voltumna", which was their meeting place, believed located at Orvieto. The identification is based on reconstruction of a root *velthumna from Latin Voltumna, Vertumnus and Voltumnus of literary sources, probably from Etruscan veltha, "earth" or "field." Representations of a bearded male with a long spear suggest Velthune may be an epithet of Tinia.[43]
Veiove, Veive, VetisEtruscan infernal deity whose temple stood at Rome near the Capitoline Hill.[42] The identification is made from the deity's Latin names related by a number of ancient authors over the centuries: Vēi, Vēdi, Vēdii, Veiovis, Vediovis, Vediiovis, Vedius.[44]
VesunaItalic goddess mentioned also in the Iguvine Tables.[42]
ZereneMacedonic goddess Zeirene Eleusia, Latin Ceres.[42]

Deified mortals
Name Description
CalaniceA Greek title for Hercle, Kallinikos.[45]
CasturOne of the mythological twins, Castor.[45]
CatmiteThe Trojan youth, Ganymede, from an alternative Greek spelling, Gadymedes.[46] From the Etruscan is Latin Catamitus.[8]
Hercle, Hercele, Herecele, Herkle, HrcleEtruscan form of the Greek hero Hēraklēs, Roman Hercules.[17] With Perseus, the main Etruscan hero, the adopted son of Uni/Juno, who suckled the adult Hercle. His image appears more often than any other on Etruscan carved hardstones. His name appears on the bronze Piacenza Liver, used for divination (hepatoscopy), a major element of Etruscan religious practice.
Pultuce, Pulutuce, Pulutuke, PultukeOne of the mythological twins, Polydeuces, Roman Pollux.[31]
RathmtrThe Greek mythological character, Rhadamanthys.[31]
Tinas cliniarEtruscan expression, "sons of Tina", designating the Dioscuri, proving that Tin was identified with Zeus.[38]

Spirits, demons, and other creatures
Name Description
AuluntheEtruscan, the name of a satyr.[45]
Begoë, VegoiaEtruscan nymph believed to have power over lightnings. She was also said to have composed a tract known as Ars Fulguritarum ("Art of the Thunderstruck"), which was included in the Roman pagan canon, along with the Sibylline Books.
CalainaThe Greek Nereid, Galene.[45]
CelsclanEtruscan Gigas, "son of Cel", identifying her as "Earth", as the giants in Greek mythology were the offspring of the earth.[8]
ChaluchasuTranslation of Greek panchalkos, "wholly of bronze", perhaps the robot of Crete, Talos.[8]
Charun, CharuThe mythological figure, Charon.[38]
ChelphunAn Etruscan satyr.
CulsuAlso Cul. A female underworld demon who was associated with gateways. Her attributes included a torch and scissors. She was often represented next to Culsans.
EvanAn attendant on Turan, sometimes male, sometimes female.[13]
HathnaEtruscan satyr.[17]
IynxAn Etruscan mythological creature, a bird of love.
Man, ManiEtruscan class of spirits representing "the dead"[47] and yet not the same as a hinthial, "ghost." From the Mani came the Latin Manes, which are both "the good" and the deified spirits of the dead.[48]/>
MetusThe Gorgon, Medusa. The head appears on the Aegis of Menrva as a Gorgoneion.[20]
Pecse, PaksteThe name of the legendary winged horse, Pegasus, assigned by the Etruscans to the Trojan Horse.[26]
PuaneaEtruscan name of a satyr.[31]
SimeAn Etruscan satyr who has a Greek name.[32]
ThevruminesMinotaur
TuchulchaAn Etruscan daemon.[41]
TusnaPerhaps from *Turansna, "of Turan." The swan of Turan.[41]
VanthEtruscan winged demon of the underworld often depicted in the company of Charun. She could be present at the moment of death, and frequently acted as a guide of the deceased to the underworld.[38][42][49]
Vecu, Vecui, Vecuvia, VegoiaThe prophetic nymph, Vegoia. See under Lasa Vecuvia,[42] Begoë.

Places
Name Description
Achrum, AcharumLegendary Greek river of the underworld, the Acheron.[2]
HipeceThe magic spring, Hippocrene, represented in Etruscan art as a water spout in the form of a lion's head.[17]
Truia, TruialsTroy, Trojan, the city of the Iliad.[50]

Mortals
Name Description
Achle, AchileLegendary hero of the Trojan War, from the Greek Achilles.[1]
AchmemrunLegendary king of Mycenaean Greece, from the Greek Agamemnon.[1]
Aivas Tlamunus, Aivas VilatesAlso Eivas or Evas. Etruscan equivalents of the Greek heroes Ajax, son of Telamon and Ajax, son of Oileus.[2]
AlchumenaThe Greek legendary character, Alcmena.[2]
Alcstei, AlcstiThe Greek legendary character, Alcestis.[2]
Alichsantre, Alechsantre, Alcsentre, Elchsntre, Elachśantre, Elachśntre, ElcsteThe Trojan legendary character, Alexandrus, otherwise known as Paris.[2][16]
AlthaiaThe Greek figure Althaea, mother of Meleager.[2]
Amuce, Amuche, AmukeThe Greek legendary figure Amycus of the Argonauts myth.[4]
AreathaThe mythological figure, Ariadne.[4]
AtaiunThe mythological figure, Actaeon.[4]
Atlenta, AtlntaThe mythological person, Atalanta.[4]
AtmiteThe legendary character, Admetus.[45]
AtunisThe mythological figure, Adonis.[45]
AturmicaThe mythological figure, Andromache, the Amazon.[45]
Capne, KapneThe legendary hero, Capaneus.[45]
CaśntraCassandra, prophetess of the Trojan War.[45]
CercaEnchantress of the Odyssey, Circe.[8]
CilensAlso written Celens.
Cluthumustha, ClutmstaThe female legendary character, Clytemnestra.[16]
CrisithaThe heroine of the Trojan War, the Greek name Chryseis.[12]
Easun, Heasun, HeiasunEtruscan version of the mythological hero Jason.
EcapaThe tragic heroine of the Trojan War, Hecuba.[12]
EcturHero of the Trojan War, Hector.[12]
Elinei, Elinai, ElinaThe character Helen of Trojan War fame.[16]
Epiur, EpeurGreek epiouros, "guardian", a boy presented to Tinia by Hercle, possibly Tages.[13]
Ermanialegendary character Hermione, daughter of Menelaus and Helen.[13]
EtuleGreek Aitolos, confused with his brother, Epeios, who built the Trojan horse.[13]
Evtucle, [Ev]thucleThe hero, Eteocles.[13]
Hamphiare, AmphareLegendary seer, Amphiaraus.[17]
LatvaThe mythological person also known as Leda.[18]
Lunc, LncheThe legendary figure, Lynceus.[18]
MeleacrThe legendary figure, known to the Greeks as Meleager.[20]
Memnum, MemrumMemnon, a Trojan saved from Achle by his mother, Thesan.[20]
MenleThe hero Menelaus, of Trojan War fame.[20]
Metaia, Metua, MetviaThe mythological character, Medea.[20]
MlacuchA young Etruscan woman kidnapped by Hercle.[26]
NesturThe legendary hero, Nestor.[26]
Palmithe, TalmitheThe hero, Palamedes.[26]
Pantasila, PentasilaThe Greek name, Penthesilea, queen of the Amazons.[26]
PatruclePatroclus, of Trojan War fame.[26]
Pava TarchiesEtruscan Tarchies in an expression: "boy Tarchies." See under Tarchies.[26]
PeleThe hero Peleus.[26]
Perse, PherseThe mythological hero, Perseus.[12]
Phaun, Faun, PhamuThe mythological character, Phaon.[12]
PhuinisThe Greek Phoinix, friend of Peleus.[12]
PhulsphnaThe legendary figure Polyxena.[12]
PrisisThe Greek Briseis mentioned in the Iliad.[12]
PriumnePriam king of Troy.[12]
SemlaThe Greek mortal, Semele.[32]
Sispe, SispheThe legendary king, Sisyphus.[32]
TagesSee Tarchies.
TaitleThe Etruscan form of the mythological figure Daedalus.[33]
TarchiesOccurs in Pava Tarchies, label of a central figure in depictions of divination, who, along with Epiur, a divinatory child, is believed to be the same as Tages, founder of the Etruscan religion, mentioned by Roman authors.[32]
TarchonAn Etruscan culture hero who, with his brother, Tyrrhenus, founded the Etruscan Federation of twelve cities.
TechrsFrom the Greek, the Trojan War hero, Teucer.[33]
Telmun, Tlamun, Talmun, TlamuA legendary Argonaut, Telamon.[33]
Teriasals, TeriasaLegendary blind prophet, Tiresias.[33]
TheseA hero who is the equivalent of Theseus.
Thethisnymph Thetis, mother of Achilles.[1]
TuntleThe legendary figure, known to the Greeks as Tyndareus.[41]
TuteThe Greek hero, Tydeus.[41]
TyrrhenusAn Etruscan culture hero and twin brother of Tarchon.
UrpheThe mythological figure, Orpheus.[1]
UrustheThe homeric legendary character, Orestes.[1]
UthsteLegendary hero, Odysseus
VelparunThe Greek hero, Elpenor.[42]
VikareSon of Taitle, the mythological figure of Icarus.[51] The name is found inscribed once, on a golden bulla dating to the 5th century BCE now housed at the Walters Art Museum.[52]
Vile, VilaeGreek Iolaos, nephew of Hercle.[42]

See also

Notes
  1. The Bonfantes (2002), page 192.
  2. The Bonfantes (2002), page 193.
  3. É. Benveniste "Nom et origine de la déesse étrusque Acaviser" in Studi Etruschi 31929 pp. 249–258.
  4. The Bonfantes (2002), page 194.
  5. Rykwert page 140. The liver and a list of names is depicted in Hooper & Schwartz page 223.
  6. de Grummond, N.T. & Simon, E. (eds). (2006). The Religion of the Etruscans. Austin, TX. University of Texas Press.
  7. De Grummond page 55.
  8. The Bonfantes (2002), page 196
  9. De Grummond page 105.
  10. Thulin pages 50 and 65.
  11. The Bonfantes (2002), page 215.
  12. The Bonfantes (2002), page 203.
  13. The Bonfantes (2002) page 198.
  14. Titus Livius, Ab urbe condita book 1, chapter 30, section 5
  15. Leland, Chapter IV, Faflon.
  16. Pallottino page 248.
  17. The Bonfantes (2002) page 199.
  18. The Bonfantes (2002), page 200.
  19. De Grummond page 21.
  20. The Bonfantes (2002), page 201.
  21. Pallottino, page 162.
  22. For a summary of her classical life, see Seyffert's Dictionary of Classical Antiquities under Mania, online at Archived 2007-09-06 at the Wayback Machine ancientlibrary.com.
  23. Summers, page 24, quotes Macrobius, Saturnalia I vii on this topic.
  24. Virgil Aeneid Book X lines 199–200 says that it was named after the prophetess Manto, but Servius' gloss on Line 199 says that the city was named after Mantus and that he was Dispater, which corresponds to Aulus Caecina's view that Tarchon dedicated all the Etruscan cities of the Po valley to Dispater. De Grummond, pages 141, 205.
  25. Page 159.
  26. The Bonfantes (2002), page 202.
  27. De Grummond page 59.
  28. Bonnefoy page 30.
  29. Livy vii. 3. 7
  30. The face theory is presented, among other reputable sources, by Eric Partridge, Origins, ISBN 0-517-41425-2.
  31. The Bonfantes (2002) page 204.
  32. The Bonfantes (2002), page 205.
  33. The Bonfantes (2002), page 206.
  34. De Grummond pages 152–153.
  35. The Bonfantes (2002), page 174.
  36. The Nostratic Macrofamily: a Study in Distant Linguistic Relationships, (1994) Allan R. Bornhard and John C. Kerns, Walter de Gruyter, ISBN 3-11-013900-6, page 304, previewed on Google Books.
  37. De Grummond, Chapter IV.
  38. Swaddling & Bonfante page 78.
  39. Thulin page 59.
  40. De Grummond, page 50, features a diagram comparing Capella and the liver, while page 149 presents the boundary stone.
  41. The Bonfantes (2002), page 208.
  42. The Bonfantes (2002), page 210.
  43. A good development of the concept can be found in Harmon.
  44. Lewis & Short, Latin Lexicon, available online at www.perseus.com.
  45. The Bonfantes (2002), page 195.
  46. J.N. Adams page 163.
  47. Bonfante 2000 page 60.
  48. Schmitz, Leonhard (1870). "Manes". In Smith, William (ed.). Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. ancientlibrary.com. Archived from the original on 2008-06-06.
  49. de Grummond, pages 220–225.
  50. The Bonfantes (2002), page 178.
  51. Swaddling & Bonfante page 42.
  52. The Walters Art Museum

References
  • Adams, J. N. (2003). Bilingualism and the Latin Language. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-81771-4.
  • Bonfante, Giuliano; Bonfante, Larissa (2002). The Etruscan Language: an Introduction. Manchester: University of Manchester Press. ISBN 0-7190-5540-7.
  • Bonnefoy, Yves (1992). Roman and European Mythologies. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-06455-7. Translated by Wendy Doniger, Gerald Honigsblum.
  • De Grummond; Nancy Thomson (2006). Etruscan Mythology, Sacred History and Legend: An Introduction. University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology. ISBN 1-931707-86-3.
  • Dennis, George (2009) [1848]. Thayer, William P (ed.). The Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria. London, Chicago: John Murray, University of Chicago.
  • Harmon, Daniel P. (1986). "Religion in the Latin Elegists". In Haase, Wolfgang (ed.). Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischenwelt. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 1961–1965. ISBN 3-11-008289-6.
  • Hooper, Finley & Schwartz, Matthew (1991). Roman Letters: History from a Personal Point of View. Wayne State University Press. ISBN 0-8143-1594-1.
  • Leland, Charles Godfrey (2002) [1892]. Etruscan Roman Remains in Popular Tradition. London, Santa Cruz: T. Fisher Unwin, sacred-texts.com.
  • Summers, Montague (2001). The Vampire in Lore and Legend. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-41942-8.
  • Pallottino, M. (1975). The Etruscans. London: Penguin Books.
  • Richardson, Emeline Hill (1976) [1964]. The Etruscans: Their Art and Civilization. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-71234-6.
  • Rykwert, Joseph (1988). The Idea of a Town: the Anthropology of Urban Form in Rome, Italy and the Ancient World. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-68056-4.
  • Swaddling, Judith & Bonfante, Larissa (2006). Etruscan Myths. University of Texas Press. ISBN 0-292-70606-5.
  • Thulin, Carl (1906). Die Götter des Martianus Capella und der Bronzeleber von Piacenza (in German). Alfred Töpelmann. Downloadable Google Books.
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