Intermittent fasting

Intermittent fasting, also known as intermittent energy restriction, is an umbrella term for various meal timing schedules that cycle between voluntary fasting (or reduced calories intake) and non-fasting over a given period.[1][2][3]

This article is about intentional fasting. For involuntary fasting, see starvation. For fasting before a clinical or surgical intervention, see preoperative fasting.
Intermittent fasting is a strategy for meal timing scheduling.

Three methods of intermittent fasting are alternate-day fasting, periodic fasting, and daily time-restricted feeding.[1][4] Intermittent fasting may be similar to a calorie-restriction diet,[2] and has been studied in the 21st century as a practice to possibly reduce the risk of diet-related diseases, such as metabolic syndrome.[1][2][5][6][7] However, intermittent fasting has been criticised as a fad.[8]

The science concerning intermittent fasting is contested. The American Heart Association (AHA) states that intermittent fasting may produce weight loss, reduce insulin resistance, and lower the risk of cardiometabolic diseases, although its long-term sustainability is unknown.[2] The US National Institute on Aging states that there is insufficient evidence to recommend intermittent fasting and encourages speaking to one's healthcare provider about the benefits and risks before making any significant changes to one's eating pattern.[9] A 2019 review concluded that intermittent fasting may help with obesity, insulin resistance, dyslipidemia, hypertension, and inflammation.[1]

Forms of intermittent fasting exist in various religious practices, including Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, Jainism, and Buddhism.[3][10][11]

Types
An alternate day fasting schedule, that alternates between usual eating (feast days) and fast days with reduced or no calories

Three methods of intermittent fasting are alternate-day fasting, periodic fasting, and time-restricted feeding:[1][3][4][8][12][13]

  • Alternate-day fasting involves alternating between a 24-hour "fast day" when the person eats less than 25% of usual energy needs, followed by a 24-hour non-fasting "feast day" period. It is the strictest form of intermittent fasting because there are more days of fasting per week.[2][4] There are two subtypes:[8][14]
    • Complete alternate-day fasting (or total intermittent energy restriction), where no calories are consumed on fast days.
    • Modified alternate-day fasting (or partial intermittent energy restriction) which allows the consumption of up to 25% of daily calorie needs on fasting days instead of complete fasting. This is akin to alternating days with normal eating and days with a very-low-calorie diet.[15]
  • Periodic fasting or whole-day fasting involves any period of consecutive fasting of more than 24 hours, such as the 5:2 diet where there are one or two fast days per week, to the more extreme version with several days or weeks of fasting.[1] During the fasting days, consumption of approximately 500 to 700 calories, or about 25% of regular daily caloric intake, may be allowed instead of complete fasting.[1][2][4][14][16]
  • Time-restricted feeding involves eating only during a certain number of hours each day.[1] Skipping a meal and the 16:8 diet (16 fasting hours cycled by 8 non-fasting hours) are examples. This schedule is thought to leverage the circadian rhythm.[2][4][17]

The science concerning intermittent fasting is preliminary and uncertain due to an absence of studies on its long term effects.[1][2][9][18][19] Preliminary evidence indicates that intermittent fasting may be effective for weight loss, may decrease insulin resistance and fasting insulin, and may improve cardiovascular and metabolic health, although the long term sustainability of these effects has not been studied.[1][2]

Recommendations

The AHA recommends intermittent fasting as an option for weight loss and calorie control as part of an "intentional approach to eating that focuses on the timing and frequency of meals and snacks as the basis of a healthier lifestyle and improved risk factor management".[2] For overweight people, fasting may be integrated into a wider dietary change, such as "placing snacks strategically before meals that might be associated with overeating", planning meals and snacks throughout the day to help manage hunger and control meal portions, and "promote consistent overnight fast periods".[2] The AHA noted that eating some food on a fast day (instead of a complete fast) produced the greatest weight loss and decreases in insulin resistance, when at least 4% weight loss was achieved by obese individuals.[2]

The American Diabetes Association "found limited evidence about the safety and/or effects of intermittent fasting on type 1 diabetes" and preliminary results of weight loss for type 2 diabetes, and so does not recommend any specific dietary pattern for the management of diabetes until more research is done, recommending instead that "health care providers should focus on the key factors that are common among the patterns".[18]

New Zealand's Ministry of Health considers that intermittent fasting can be advised by doctors to some people, except diabetics, stating that these "diets can be as effective as other energy-restricted diets, and some people may find them easier to stick to" but there are possible side effects during fasting days such as "hunger, low energy levels, light-headedness and poor mental functioning" and note that healthy food must be chosen on non-fast days.[19][20]

The NIA stated that although intermittent fasting showed weight loss success in several studies on obese or overweight individuals, it does not recommend intermittent fasting for non-overweight individuals because of uncertainties about its effectiveness and safety, especially for older adults.[9]

According to NHS Choices, people considering the 5:2 diet should first consult a physician, as fasting can sometimes be unsafe.[21][22] A news item in the Canadian Medical Association Journal expressed concern that promotional material for the diet showed people eating high-calorie food, such as hamburgers and chips, and that this could encourage binge eating since the implication was that "if you fast two days a week, you can devour as much junk as your gullet can swallow during the remaining five days".[23]

Given the lack of advantage and the increased incidence of diarrhea, European guidelines do not recommend intermittent feeding.[24][25]

As of 2019, intermittent fasting was a common fad diet, attracting celebrity endorsements and public interest.[26]

UK

Intermittent fasting (specifically the 5:2 diet of Michelle Harvie and Mark Mattson and popularized by Michael Mosley) became popular in the UK in 2012[27][28] after the BBC2 television Horizon documentary Eat, Fast and Live Longer.[29] Via sales of best-selling books, it became widely practiced.[21][30]

North America

In the United States, intermittent fasting became a fad in Silicon Valley.[31] It was the most popular diet in 2018 according to a survey by the International Food Information Council.[32][33] The idea of binge eating following dietary restrictions stems from an extrapolation of a post-war famine study, where nineteen prisoners of war were observed during their rehabilitation with unlimited access to food, and found they tended to indulge in binge eating.[15]

Commercial activity

As of 2019, interest in intermittent fasting led some companies to commercialize diet coaching, dietary supplements and full meal packages.[31][34] These companies were criticized for offering expensive products or services that were not backed by science.[34][35]

Research

Weight

There is some limited evidence that intermittent fasting produces weight loss comparable to a calorie restricted diet.[5][6][7][36][37][38] Most studies on intermittent fasting in humans observed weight losses, ranging from 2.5% to 9.9%.[39][40] Alternate day fasting does not affect lean body mass,[4][41] although one review found a small decrease.[42] Alternate day fasting improves cardiovascular and metabolic biomarkers similarly to a calorie restriction diet for people who are overweight, obese or have a metabolic syndrome.[5][7][13][16][43]

Intermittent fasting has not yet been studied in children, the elderly, or underweight people, and could be harmful in these populations.[5][7][9][44] Intermittent fasting is not recommended for people who are not overweight.[9] The long-term sustainability of intermittent fasting was unknown as of 2018.[9][45][46]

Other effects

Night-time eating has been linked to impaired sleep quality.[14] Intermittent fasting (prevention, treatment, drugs interaction) is not recommended to treat cancer in France,[47][48] the United Kingdom,[49] or the United States,[50] although a few small-scale clinical studies suggest that intermittent fasting may reduce chemotherapy side effects.[51][52] Periodic fasting may have a minor effect on chronic pain and mood disorders.[53][54][55] In preliminary research, intermittent fasting has shown signs of reducing risk factors for certain disorders, including insulin resistance and cardiovascular disease.[56] Intermittent fasting does not affect bone health.[57]

Athletic performance does not benefit from intermittent fasting.[58] Overnight fasting before exercise increases lipolysis, but reduces performance in prolonged exercise (more than 60 min).[59][60]

Adverse effects

Reviews of preliminary clinical studies found that short-term intermittent fasting may produce minor adverse effects, such as continuous feelings of hunger, irritability, and impaired thinking, although these effects appear to dissipate within a month of the fasting practice.[1] However, the data remain sparse, as most studies did not analyze adverse effects specifically.[5][37][61][62] A 2018 systematic review found no major adverse effect.[5] Intermittent fasting is not recommended for pregnant or breastfeeding women, or children and adolescents during maturation, or individuals vulnerable to eating disorders.[12]

Tolerance

Tolerance of a diet is a determinant of its potential effectiveness and maintenance of benefits obtained, such as weight loss or biomarker improvement.[37] A 2019 review found that drop-out rates varied widely from 2% to 38% for intermittent fasting, and from 0% to 50% for a calorie restriction diet.[5]

Putative mechanisms

Preliminary research indicates that fasting may induce a transition through four states: 1) from the fed state or absorptive state during satiety when the primary fuel source is glucose and body fat storage is activated, an effect lasting about 4 hours;[63][64] 2) a postabsorptive state lasting for up to 18 hours when glucagon is secreted and the body uses liver glucose reserves as a fuel source;[4][13][63] 3) a fasted state transitioning progressively to other reserves, such as fat, lactic acid, and alanine as fuel sources, when the liver glucose reserves are depleted, an effect occurring after 12 to 36 hours of continued fast;[64][65][66] 4) a shift from preferential lipid synthesis and fat storage to the mobilization of fat in the form of free fatty acids metabolized into fatty acid-derived ketones to provide energy.[13][64][67][68] Some authors call this transition a "metabolic switch".[1][13][69][7] A 2019 review of weight-change interventions, including alternate day fasting, time-restricted feeding, exercise and overeating, found that body weight homeostasis could not precisely correct for "energetic errors" – the loss or gain of calories – in the short-term.[70]

Intermittent feeding

Other feeding schemes, such as hypocaloric feeding[71] and intermittent feeding, also called bolus feeding were under study.[24] A 2019 meta-analysis found that intermittent feeding may be more beneficial for premature infants, although better designed studies are required to devise clinical practices.[72] In adults, reviews have not found intermittent feeding to increase glucose variability or gastrointestinal intolerance.[73][25] A meta-analysis found intermittent feeding had no influence on gastric residual volumes and aspiration, pneumonia, mortality nor morbidity in people with a trauma, but increased the risk of diarrhea.[24][25]

Food production

Intermittent fasting, or "skip-a-day" feeding, is supposedly the most common feeding strategy for poultry in broiler breeder farms worldwide, as an alternative to adding bulky fibers to the diet to reduce growth. It is perceived as welfare-reducing and thus illegal in several European countries including Sweden. Intermittent fasting in poultry appears to increase food consumption but reduce appetitive behaviors such as foraging.[74]

History

Fasting is an ancient tradition, having been practiced by many cultures and religions over centuries.[8][75][76]

Therapeutic intermittent fasts for the treatment of obesity are investigated since at least 1915, with a renewed interest in the medical community in the 1960s after Bloom and his colleagues published an "enthusiastic report".[77] Intermittent fasts, or "short-term starvation periods", were ranging from 1 to 14 days in these early studies.[78] This enthusiasm penetrated lay magazines, which prompted researchers and clinicians to caution about the use of intermittent fasts without medical monitoring.[79]

A modern type of intermittent fasting, the 5:2 diet, began in the United Kingdom in 2012.[80][81]

Religious fasting
The Christian season of Lent begins on Ash Wednesday, which is observed through fasting and the public imposition of ashes, as in this Lutheran celebration of the Mass.

Intermittent fasting exists in some religious practices.[3][10] These include the Black Fast of Christianity (commonly practiced during Lent), Vrata (Hinduism), Ramadan (Islam), Yom Kippur and other fasts (Judaism), Fast Sunday (The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints), and Buddhist fasting.[10] Religious fasting practices may only require abstinence from certain foods or, last for a short period of time and cause negligible effects.[10]

In Christianity, many adherents of Christian denominations including Catholics, Lutherans, Methodists, Anglicans and the Orthodox, often observe the Friday Fast throughout the year, which commonly includes abstinence from meat.[82] Throughout the liturgical season of Lent (and especially on Ash Wednesday and Good Friday) in the Christian kalendar, many Christians practice a form of intermittent fasting in which one can consume two collations and one full meal; others partake of the Black Fast, in which no food is consumed until sundown.[83][84]

In Buddhism, fasting is undertaken as part of the monastic training of Theravada Buddhist monks, who fast daily from noon to sunrise of the next day.[85] This daily fasting pattern may be undertaken by laypeople following the eight precepts.[86][87]

During Ramadan, Islamic practices are similar to intermittent fasting by not eating or drinking from dawn until sunset, while permitting food intake in the morning before dawn and in the evening after dusk.[10] A meta-analysis on the health of Muslims during Ramadan shows significant weight loss during the fasting period of up to 1.51 kilograms (3.3 lb), but this weight was regained within about two weeks thereafter.[88] The analysis concluded that "Ramadan provides an opportunity to lose weight, but structured and consistent lifestyle modifications are necessary to achieve lasting weight loss."[88] One review found similarities between Ramadan and time-restricted feeding, with the main dissimilarity being the disallowance of water drinking with Islamic fasting.[89] Negative effects of Ramadan fasting include increased risk of hypoglycemia in diabetics, as well as inadequate levels of certain nutrients.[10] Ramadan disallows fluids during the fasting period. This is hazardous for pregnant women, as it is associated with risks of inducing labor and causing gestational diabetes, although it does not appear to affect the child's weight.[90][91][92]

See also

References
  1. de Cabo, Rafael; Mattson, Mark P. (December 2019). "Effects of intermittent fasting on health, aging, and disease". New England Journal of Medicine. 381 (26): 2541–51. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1905136. PMID 31881139.
  2. St-Onge MP, Ard J, Baskin ML, Chiuve SE, Johnson HM, Kris-Etherton P, Varady K, et al. (American Heart Association Obesity Committee of the Council on Lifestyle and Cardiometabolic Health; Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young; Council on Clinical Cardiology; and Stroke) (February 2017). "Meal Timing and Frequency: Implications for Cardiovascular Disease Prevention: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association". Circulation. 135 (9): e96–e121. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000476. PMID 28137935.
  3. Patterson RE, Laughlin GA, LaCroix AZ, Hartman SJ, Natarajan L, Senger CM, et al. (August 2015). "Intermittent Fasting and Human Metabolic Health". Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. 115 (8): 1203–12. doi:10.1016/j.jand.2015.02.018. PMC 4516560. PMID 25857868.
  4. Tinsley GM, La Bounty PM (October 2015). "Effects of intermittent fasting on body composition and clinical health markers in humans". Nutrition Reviews. 73 (10): 661–74. doi:10.1093/nutrit/nuv041. PMID 26374764.
  5. Cioffi I, Evangelista A, Ponzo V, Ciccone G, Soldati L, Santarpia L, et al. (December 2018). "Intermittent versus continuous energy restriction on weight loss and cardiometabolic outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials". Journal of Translational Medicine (Systematic review). 16 (1): 371. doi:10.1186/s12967-018-1748-4. PMC 6304782. PMID 30583725.
  6. Sainsbury A, Wood RE, Seimon RV, Hills AP, King NA, Gibson AA, Byrne NM (December 2018). "Rationale for novel intermittent dieting strategies to attenuate adaptive responses to energy restriction". Obesity Reviews. 19 Suppl 1: 47–60. doi:10.1111/obr.12787. PMID 30511512.
  7. Harris L, Hamilton S, Azevedo LB, Olajide J, De Brún C, Waller G, et al. (February 2018). "Intermittent fasting interventions for treatment of overweight and obesity in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis" (PDF). JBI Database of Systematic Reviews and Implementation Reports. 16 (2): 507–547. doi:10.11124/JBISRIR-2016-003248. PMID 29419624.
  8. Hart K (2018). "Chapter 4.6 Fad diets and fasting for weight loss in obesity.". In Hankey C (ed.). Advanced nutrition and dietetics in obesity. Wiley. pp. 177–182. ISBN 9780470670767.
  9. "Calorie restriction and fasting diets: What do we know?". National Institute on Aging, US National Institutes of Health. 2018-08-14. Retrieved 29 September 2019.
  10. Persynaki A, Karras S, Pichard C (March 2017). "Unraveling the metabolic health benefits of fasting related to religious beliefs: A narrative review". Nutrition. 35: 14–20. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2016.10.005. PMID 28241983.
  11. Kannan, Subramanian; Mahadevan, Shriraam; Seshadri, Krishna; Sadacharan, Dhalapathy; Velayutham, Kumaravel (2016). "Fasting practices in Tamil Nadu and their importance for patients with diabetes". Indian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism. 20 (6): 858–862. doi:10.4103/2230-8210.192921. ISSN 2230-8210. PMC 5105573. PMID 27867892.
  12. "Diet Review: Intermittent Fasting for Weight Loss". The Nutrition Source. Harvard School of Public Health. 16 January 2018. Retrieved 4 October 2019.
  13. Anton SD, Moehl K, Donahoo WT, Marosi K, Lee SA, Mainous AG, et al. (February 2018). "Flipping the metabolic switch: Understanding and applying the health benefits of fasting". Obesity (Review). 26 (2): 254–268. doi:10.1002/oby.22065. PMC 5783752. PMID 29086496. Lay summary.
  14. Patterson RE, Sears DD (August 2017). "Metabolic Effects of Intermittent Fasting". Annual Review of Nutrition. 37 (1): 371–393. doi:10.1146/annurev-nutr-071816-064634. PMID 28715993.
  15. Johnstone, A (May 2015). "Fasting for weight loss: an effective strategy or latest dieting trend?". International Journal of Obesity (Review). 39 (5): 727–33. doi:10.1038/ijo.2014.214. PMID 25540982.
  16. Mattson MP, Longo VD, Harvie M (October 2017). "Impact of intermittent fasting on health and disease processes". Ageing Research Reviews. 39: 46–58. doi:10.1016/j.arr.2016.10.005. PMC 5411330. PMID 27810402.
  17. "Time-restricted eating is growing in popularity, but is it healthy?". www.heart.org. Retrieved 4 October 2019.
  18. Evert AB, Dennison M, Gardner CD, Garvey WT, Lau KH, MacLeod J, et al. (May 2019). "Nutrition Therapy for Adults With Diabetes or Prediabetes: A Consensus Report". Diabetes Care (Professional society guidelines). 42 (5): 731–754. doi:10.2337/dci19-0014. PMC 7011201. PMID 31000505.
  19. Minister of Health NZ (2017). Clinical guidelines for weight management in New Zealand adults (National guidelines). ISBN 978-1-98-853916-4.
  20. "Popular diets review". Ministry of Health NZ (National guidelines). February 2018. Retrieved 1 November 2019.
  21. Fleming, Amy (27 January 2015). "Fasting facts: is the 5:2 diet too good to be true?". The Guardian. Retrieved 18 January 2018.
  22. "News analysis: Does the 5:2 intermittent fasting diet work?". Health News. UK National Health Service - NHS Choices. May 2013. Retrieved 23 November 2016.
  23. Collier R (June 2013). "Intermittent fasting: the science of going without". CMAJ. 185 (9): E363-4. doi:10.1503/cmaj.109-4451. PMC 3680567. PMID 23569168.
  24. Singer P, Blaser AR, Berger MM, Alhazzani W, Calder PC, Casaer MP, et al. (February 2019). "ESPEN guideline on clinical nutrition in the intensive care unit" (PDF). Clinical Nutrition. 38 (1): 48–79. doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2018.08.037. PMID 30348463.
  25. Van Dyck L, Casaer MP (August 2019). "Intermittent or continuous feeding: any difference during the first week?". Current Opinion in Critical Care (Meta-analysis). 25 (4): 356–362. doi:10.1097/MCC.0000000000000617. PMID 31107308.
  26. Arbolario, Kristine (26 August 2019). "Intermittent Fasting: Exposing The Dangers Of This Fad Diet". Medical Daily.
  27. "How to diet". Live Well - NHS Choices. UK National Health Service. 9 December 2011. Retrieved 10 February 2014.
  28. Trueland J (December 2013). "Fast and effective?". Nursing Standard. 28 (16–18): 26–7. doi:10.7748/ns2013.12.28.16.26.s28. PMID 24345130.
  29. Mosley, Michael (5 September 2012). "Eat, Fast & Live Longer". Horizon. Episode 49x03. BBC. 2. Retrieved 10 February 2014.
  30. "The UK's Hot New 5:2 Diet Craze Hits The U.S. - Weight Loss Miracle?". Forbes. 17 May 2013. Retrieved 10 February 2014.
  31. Solon O (2017-09-04). "The Silicon Valley execs who don't eat for days: 'It's not dieting, it's biohacking'". The Guardian. Retrieved 2018-11-05.
  32. Kohok, Shivaani (3 June 2019). "Why is intermittent fasting so popular?".
  33. "2018 Food & Health Survey" (PDF). foodinsight.org. International Food Information Council. 2018.
  34. Giles T (24 April 2018). "Silicon Valley wants to cash in on fasting". Bloomberg News. Retrieved 8 November 2018.
  35. "Not so fast: Pros and cons of the newest diet trend". Harvard Health Publishing, Harvard University Medical School. 31 July 2019. Retrieved 28 August 2019.
  36. Davis CS, Clarke RE, Coulter SN, Rounsefell KN, Walker RE, Rauch CE, et al. (March 2016). "Intermittent energy restriction and weight loss: a systematic review". European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 70 (3): 292–9. doi:10.1038/ejcn.2015.195. PMID 26603882.
  37. Freire R (2020). "Scientific evidence of diets for weight loss: Different macronutrient composition, intermittent fasting, and popular diets". Nutrition. 69: 110549. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2019.07.001. PMID 31525701.
  38. Thom G, Lean M (May 2017). "Is There an Optimal Diet for Weight Management and Metabolic Health?" (PDF). Gastroenterology (Review). 152 (7): 1739–1751. doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2017.01.056. PMID 28214525. The principle for it providing health benefit independent of body weight loss is that regularly inducing a mild stressor such as fasting increases resistance against a number of degenerative age-related problems
  39. Ekmekcioglu, C (21 October 2019). "Nutrition and longevity - From mechanisms to uncertainties". Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition (Review): 1–20. doi:10.1080/10408398.2019.1676698. PMID 31631676.
  40. Stockman, MC; Thomas, D; Burke, J; Apovian, CM (June 2018). "Intermittent Fasting: Is the Wait Worth the Weight?". Current Obesity Reports (Review). 7 (2): 172–185. doi:10.1007/s13679-018-0308-9. PMC 5959807. PMID 29700718. Nearly all IF studies have resulted in some degree of weight loss, ranging from 2.5–9.9%, and associated fat mass loss.
  41. Alhamdan BA, Garcia-Alvarez A, Alzahrnai AH, Karanxha J, Stretchberry DR, Contrera KJ, et al. (September 2016). "Alternate-day versus daily energy restriction diets: which is more effective for weight loss? A systematic review and meta-analysis". Obesity Science & Practice. 2 (3): 293–302. doi:10.1002/osp4.52. PMC 5043510. PMID 27708846.
  42. Roman YM, Dominguez MC, Easow TM, Pasupuleti V, White CM, Hernandez AV (October 2019). "Effects of intermittent versus continuous dieting on weight and body composition in obese and overweight people: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials". International Journal of Obesity. 43 (10): 2017–2027. doi:10.1038/s41366-018-0204-0. hdl:10757/624649. PMID 30206335.
  43. Papamichou D, Panagiotakos DB, Itsiopoulos C (June 2019). "Dietary patterns and management of type 2 diabetes: A systematic review of randomised clinical trials". Nutrition, Metabolism, and Cardiovascular Diseases (Systematic review). 29 (6): 531–543. doi:10.1016/j.numecd.2019.02.004. PMID 30952576.
  44. Longo VD, Mattson MP (February 2014). "Fasting: molecular mechanisms and clinical applications". Cell Metabolism. 19 (2): 181–92. doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2013.12.008. PMC 3946160. PMID 24440038.
  45. Harris L, McGarty A, Hutchison L, Ells L, Hankey C (January 2018). "Short-term intermittent energy restriction interventions for weight management: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Obesity Reviews. 19 (1): 1–13. doi:10.1111/obr.12593. PMID 28975722.
  46. Headland M, Clifton PM, Carter S, Keogh JB (June 2016). "Weight-Loss Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Intermittent Energy Restriction Trials Lasting a Minimum of 6 Months". Nutrients. 8 (6): 354. doi:10.3390/nu8060354. PMC 4924195. PMID 27338458.
  47. "Réseau NACRe - Réseau National Alimentation Cancer Recherche - Rapport NACRe jeûne regimes restrictifs cancer 2017". www6.inra.fr (in French). November 2017. Retrieved 19 September 2018. Lay summary.
  48. Régime et évolution d'un cancer. Rev Prescrire. 1 October 2018. p. 773.
  49. "No proof 5:2 diet prevents cancer". nhs.uk. 3 October 2018.
  50. Russell J; Rovere A, eds. (2009). "Fasting". American Cancer Society Complete Guide to Complementary and Alternative Cancer Therapies (2nd ed.). American Cancer Society. ISBN 9780944235713.
  51. Smith LA, O'Flanagan CH, Bowers LW, Allott EH, Hursting SD (April 2018). "Translating Mechanism-Based Strategies to Break the Obesity-Cancer Link: A Narrative Review". Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics (Narrative review). 118 (4): 652–667. doi:10.1016/j.jand.2017.08.112. PMC 5869082. PMID 29102513.
  52. O'Flanagan, CH; Smith, LA; McDonell, SB; Hursting, SD (24 May 2017). "When less may be more: calorie restriction and response to cancer therapy". BMC Medicine (Mini-review). 15 (1): 106. doi:10.1186/s12916-017-0873-x. PMC 5442682. PMID 28539118.
  53. Brain K, Burrows TL, Rollo ME, Chai LK, Clarke ED, Hayes C, et al. (April 2019). "A systematic review and meta-analysis of nutrition interventions for chronic noncancer pain". Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics. 32 (2): 198–225. doi:10.1111/jhn.12601. PMID 30294938.
  54. Fond G, Macgregor A, Leboyer M, Michalsen A (October 2013). "Fasting in mood disorders: neurobiology and effectiveness. A review of the literature" (PDF). Psychiatry Research. 209 (3): 253–8. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2012.12.018. PMID 23332541.
  55. Michalsen A (April 2010). "Prolonged fasting as a method of mood enhancement in chronic pain syndromes: a review of clinical evidence and mechanisms". Current Pain and Headache Reports. 14 (2): 80–7. doi:10.1007/s11916-010-0104-z. PMID 20425196.
  56. Mattson, Mark P.; Longo, Valter D.; Harvie, Michelle (2017-10-01). "Impact of intermittent fasting on health and disease processes". Ageing Research Reviews. 39: 46–58. doi:10.1016/j.arr.2016.10.005. ISSN 1568-1637. PMC 5411330. PMID 27810402.
  57. Veronese N, Reginster JY (June 2019). "The effects of calorie restriction, intermittent fasting and vegetarian diets on bone health". Aging Clinical and Experimental Research. 31 (6): 753–758. doi:10.1007/s40520-019-01174-x. PMID 30903600.
  58. Levy E, Chu T (July 2019). "Intermittent Fasting and Its Effects on Athletic Performance: A Review". Current Sports Medicine Reports. 18 (7): 266–269. doi:10.1249/JSR.0000000000000614. PMID 31283627.
  59. Vieira AF, Costa RR, Macedo RC, Coconcelli L, Kruel LF (October 2016). "Effects of aerobic exercise performed in fasted v. fed state on fat and carbohydrate metabolism in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis". The British Journal of Nutrition (Meta-analysis). 116 (7): 1153–1164. doi:10.1017/S0007114516003160. PMID 27609363. Lay summary.
  60. Aird TP, Davies RW, Carson BP (May 2018). "Effects of fasted vs fed-state exercise on performance and post-exercise metabolism: A systematic review and meta-analysis". Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports (Meta-analysis). 28 (5): 1476–1493. doi:10.1111/sms.13054. hdl:10344/6776. PMID 29315892.
  61. Horne BD, Muhlestein JB, Anderson JL (August 2015). "Health effects of intermittent fasting: hormesis or harm? A systematic review". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 102 (2): 464–70. doi:10.3945/ajcn.115.109553. PMID 26135345.
  62. "Top diets review". nhs.uk. 26 April 2018. Retrieved 6 October 2019.
  63. Monnier, L; Colette, C; Lapinski, H; Boniface, H (17 February 2008). "Rationale for SMBG: lessons from the study of daytime periods by taking meals as reference". Diabetes & Metabolism (Mini-review). Elsevier Masson. 30 (2): 113–119. doi:10.1016/S1262-3636(07)70097-6. PMID 15223983.
  64. Drăgoi, Cristina Manuela (10 July 2019). "Insights into Chrononutrition: The Innermost Interplay Amongst Nutrition, Metabolism and the Circadian Clock, in the Context of Epigenetic Reprogramming". Farmacia. 67 (4): 557–571. doi:10.31925/farmacia.2019.4.2.
  65. Cahill GF (August 2006). "Fuel metabolism in starvation". Annual Review of Nutrition (Narrative Review). 26 (1): 1–22. doi:10.1146/annurev.nutr.26.061505.111258. PMID 16848698.
  66. Renold AE (1965). "Section 5: Adipose Tissue". Handbook of Physiology: a Critical, Comprehensive Presentation of Physiological Knowledge and Concepts. American Physiological Society.
  67. Lechner K, von Schacky C, McKenzie AL, Worm N, Nixdorff U, Lechner B, et al. (2020). "Lifestyle factors and high-risk atherosclerosis: Pathways and mechanisms beyond traditional risk factors". European Journal of Preventive Cardiology. 27 (4): 394–406. doi:10.1177/2047487319869400. PMC 7065445. PMID 31408370.
  68. Zubrzycki A, Cierpka-Kmiec K, Kmiec Z, Wronska A (October 2018). "The role of low-calorie diets and intermittent fasting in the treatment of obesity and type-2 diabetes". Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology (Review). 69 (5). doi:10.26402/jpp.2018.5.02. PMID 30683819.
  69. Mattson MP, Moehl K, Ghena N, Schmaedick M, Cheng A (February 2018). "Intermittent metabolic switching, neuroplasticity and brain health". Nature Reviews. Neuroscience (Review). 19 (2): 63–80. doi:10.1038/nrn.2017.156. PMC 5913738. PMID 29321682.
  70. Levitsky DA, Sewall A, Zhong Y, Barre L, Shoen S, Agaronnik N, et al. (February 2019). "Quantifying the imprecision of energy intake of humans to compensate for imposed energetic errors: A challenge to the physiological control of human food intake". Appetite. 133: 337–343. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2018.11.017. PMID 30476522.
  71. Marik PE, Hooper MH (March 2016). "Normocaloric versus hypocaloric feeding on the outcomes of ICU patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Intensive Care Medicine. 42 (3): 316–323. doi:10.1007/s00134-015-4131-4. PMID 26556615.
  72. Wang Y, Zhu W, Luo BR (October 2019). "Continuous feeding versus intermittent bolus feeding for premature infants with low birth weight: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials". European Journal of Clinical Nutrition (Meta-analysis). 74 (5): 775–783. doi:10.1038/s41430-019-0522-x. PMID 31659243.
  73. Bear DE, Hart N, Puthucheary Z (August 2018). "Continuous or intermittent feeding: pros and cons". Current Opinion in Critical Care (Review). 24 (4): 256–261. doi:10.1097/MCC.0000000000000513. PMID 29877877.
  74. Lindholm, Caroline (2019). Intermittent fasting in chickens: Physiological mechanisms and welfare implications for broiler breeders. Linköping University Electronic Press. ISBN 978-91-7685-018-3.
  75. Fung J (11 April 2015). "Fasting - A History". Intensive Dietary Management.
  76. Hicks C (13 April 2015). "Why fasting is now back in fashion". The Telegraph. Retrieved 14 January 2019.
  77. Howard, A. N. (1975). "Dietary Treatment of Obesity". Obesity: Its Pathogenesis And Management (Monograph). Springer Netherlands. pp. 123–153. doi:10.1007/978-94-011-7155-7_5. ISBN 978-94-011-7155-7.:125
  78. Duncan, Garfield G.; Cristofori, Fred C.; Yue, James K.; Murthy, M.S.J. (September 1964). "The Control of Obesity by Intermittent Fasts". Medical Clinics of North America (Review). 48 (5): 1359–1372. doi:10.1016/S0025-7125(16)33406-X. PMC 2249073. PMID 14047310.
  79. Dinning, JS (October 1963). "Correction Of Obesity By Fasting". Nutrition Reviews (Mini-review). 21 (10): 304–6. doi:10.1111/j.1753-4887.1963.tb07474.x. PMID 14069065.
  80. Mosley, Michael (5 August 2012). "The power of intermittent fasting". BBC Health. Retrieved 14 January 2019.
  81. "Horizon - Eat, Fast and Live Longer". BBC iPlayer. 6 August 2012. Retrieved 14 January 2019.
  82. Boyers, Lindsay (2019). Intermittent Fasting Basics: Your Guide to the Essentials of Intermittent Fasting—and How It Can Work for You!. Simon and Schuster. p. 19. ISBN 978-1-5072-1056-7.
  83. "Fasting Guidelines" (PDF). Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod. 2016. Retrieved 17 March 2018.
  84. Stravinskas, Peter M. J.; Shaw, Russell B. (1 September 1998). Our Sunday Visitor's Catholic Encyclopedia. Our Sunday Visitor. ISBN 9780879736699. The so-called black fast refers to a day or days of penance on which only one meal is allowed, and that in the evening. The prescription of this type of fast not only forbids the partaking of meats but also of all dairy products, such as eggs, butter, cheese and milk. Wine and other alcoholic beverages are forbidden as well. In short, only bread, water and vegetables form part of the diet for one following such a fast.
  85. Johnston WM (2013-12-04). Encyclopedia of Monasticism. Routledge. p. 467. ISBN 9781136787164.
  86. Cottrell T, Zigmond D (2016-09-06). Buddha's Diet: The Ancient Art of Losing Weight Without Losing Your Mind. Running Press. pp. 26–27. ISBN 9780762460465.
  87. Johnston WM (2013-12-04). Encyclopedia of Monasticism. Routledge. p. 467. ISBN 9781136787164.
  88. Sadeghirad B, Motaghipisheh S, Kolahdooz F, Zahedi MJ, Haghdoost AA (February 2014). "Islamic fasting and weight loss: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Public Health Nutrition. 17 (2): 396–406. doi:10.1017/S1368980012005046. PMID 23182306.
  89. Ismail S, Manaf RA, Mahmud A (June 2019). "Comparison of time-restricted feeding and Islamic fasting: a scoping review". Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal (Review). World Health Organization Regional Office for the Eastern Mediterranean. 25 (4): 239–245. doi:10.26719/emhj.19.011. PMID 31210344.
  90. Glazier JD, Hayes DJ, Hussain S, D'Souza SW, Whitcombe J, Heazell AE, Ashton N (October 2018). "The effect of Ramadan fasting during pregnancy on perinatal outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis". BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth. 18 (1): 421. doi:10.1186/s12884-018-2048-y. PMC 6202808. PMID 30359228.
  91. Balani J, Hyer S, Wagner M, Shehata H (2019). "Chapter 22: Obesity, Polycystic Ovaries and Impaired Reproductive Outcome". In Mahmood T, Arulkumaran S (eds.). Obesity. Journal of the American Association of Nurse Practitioners. 31. Elsevier. pp. 289–298. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-416045-3.00022-4. ISBN 978-0-12-416045-3. PMID 30829975.
  92. Mirghani HM, Hamud OA (January 2006). "The effect of maternal diet restriction on pregnancy outcome". American Journal of Perinatology. 23 (1): 21–4. doi:10.1055/s-2005-923435. PMID 16450268.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.