George II of Greece

Despite the nationalist government's strong economic and military ties to Germany, a connection which continued with Nazi Germany, King George was known to have pro-British feelings at the start of World War II. On 28 October 1940, Metaxas rejected an Italian ultimatum demanding the stationing of Italian troops in Greece, and Italy invaded, starting the Greco-Italian War. The Greeks mounted a successful defense and eventually occupied the southern half of Albania (then an Italian protectorate), but when the Germans invaded from Bulgaria on 6 April 1941, the Greeks and the British Expeditionary Force were overrun, and mainland Greece was occupied.[13]

Following the suicide of Prime Minister Alexandros Koryzis on 18 April 1941 in the face of the rapid German advance, George found himself as the de facto head of government (as well as head of the three armed services ministries) for a few days, as he cast around for a potential successor.[14] The King had thus a unique opportunity to form a broader government of national consensus, and abolish the hated dictatorial regime—whose sole bastion of support he now was. Although he was urged to this step by the influential British ambassador, Michael Palairet, George refused.[14]

Instead, several names were put forward to head a government. George initially proposed Konstantinos Kotzias, one of Metaxas' ministers, but his ties to the regime made him an unfeasible choice; veteran Venizelist general Alexandros Mazarakis-Ainian was given the mandate to form a government, but returned it on 20 April, partly due to his refusal to collaborated with Metaxas' hated security minister Konstantinos Maniadakis; other figures, such as the former dictator Theodoros Pangalos, were rejected.[15] Finally, the next day, Emmanouil Tsouderos, former governor of the Bank of Greece, was sworn in, chiefly on account of his known Anglophile sentiments, Venizelist past, and Cretan origin; the government was preparing to evacuate to Crete, which cherished the memory of Venizelos and was largely anti-monarchical, and this appointment was seen as a sop to local sentiment.[16]

On 23 April the King and the government left the Greek mainland for Crete,[17] but after the German airborne attack on the island, George was evacuated to Egypt. Once again he went into exile to Great Britain, seemingly at the behest of King Farouk of Egypt and Farouk's pro-Italian ministers.[18]

During the war he remained the internationally recognized head of state, backed by the exiled government and Greek forces serving in the Middle East. The British Foreign Office found the king an exceedingly difficult man to deal with, as the king was deeply obstinate about upholding what he regarded as his royal prerogatives, and proved notably unwilling to compromise with those who wanted a clear break with the 4th of August Regime.[4] George long resisted British pressure to promise to restore the constitution of 1911, under the grounds to do so would be to admit that he acted illegally in suspending the constitution on 4 August 1936.[19] Likewise, George kept on until 1942 cabinet ministers from the Metaxas regime, most notably Maniadakis.[20] Under heavy British pressure, George in a radio broadcast on 28 October 1941 reluctantly proclaimed the end of the 4th of August Regime, and only in February 1942 did he promise to restore articles 5, 6, 10, 12, 14, 20 and 95 of the 1911 constitution.[21]

A deeply paranoid and insecure man, George believed that the British government was plotting to prevent his return to Greece, despite all of the evidence to the contrary.[4] Edward Warner of the Southern Department of the Foreign Office wrote in March 1942 that the king was "under the extraordinary impression that the Foreign Office was 'pro-Republican and anti-himself'".[22] The British ambassador to the government-in-exile, Sir Reginald Leeper, noted that the king's coldness did not win him many friends, writing: "Amongst these vivacious, talkative and intensely political southerners he is very much the reserved northerner who damps the ardour of those who might otherwise acclaim him".[4] Leeper noted that almost every meeting he had with the king, he had to listen to a lengthy litany of complaints.[19] In particular, the king objected to BBC's Greek language service, where the main radio announcer, G.N. Soteriadis, was a Venizelist.[23] George repeatedly asked that Soteriadis be fired and replaced with a monarchist.[24] One of George's few friends was the British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, who was determined to see him restored and tended to back the king's complaints against his own officials.[25]

In occupied Greece, however, the leftist partisans of the National Liberation Front (EAM) and National Popular Liberation Army (ELAS), now unfettered by Metaxas' oppression, had become the largest Greek Resistance movement, enjoying considerable popular support. As liberation drew nearer, however, the prospect of the King's return caused dissensions both inside Greece and among the Greeks abroad. Although the King effectively renounced the Metaxas regime in a radio broadcast, a large section of the people and many politicians rejected his return on account of his support of the dictatorship. In November 1943 George wrote to the Prime Minister-in-exile Emmanouil Tsouderos, "I shall examine anew the question of the date of my return to Greece in agreement with the Government". Either deliberately or accidentally, the version released for publication omitted the words "of the date", creating the impression that George had agreed to a further plebiscite on the monarchy, even though a retraction was issued.[26]

After two changes of Prime Minister, the establishment of a rival Communist-led government in occupied Greece and a pro-EAM mutiny among the armed forces in the Middle East, it was agreed in the May 1944 Lebanon conference that the fate of the monarchy would be decided in a national referendum. George was very much opposed to a regency, and tried his best to turn his friend Winston Churchill against Archbishop Damaskinos of Athens, accusing him of being a Communist and a Nazi collaborator.[27] As late as Christmas Eve 1944, during the height of the Dekemvriana, George had rejected the compromise solution of a regency, demanding that he return to Greece at once to reclaim his throne.[28] On 29 December 1944, at a meeting at 10 Downing Street Churchill told the king "...that if he did not agree to the matter would be settled without him, and that we should recognise the new Government instead of him"..[29] The king's private secretary recalled: "I could hear through the door the voices of Churchill and Eden, particularly the latter, raised in anger at the King. In this heated argument the door was flung open and the King stormed out, his face white and taut...In the car as we drove back to the hotel the King would not trust himself to speak; after recovering his composure he went back to Downing Street and informed Churchill and Eden that had no choice but to acquiesce to their demands".[30]

Bowing to Allied pressure, George was forced to appoint Archbishop Damaskinos of Athens as Regent in January 1945. Damaskinos immediately appointed a republican-dominated government. Ill, exhausted and powerless, George bought a lease on a house in Chester Square, Belgravia, and made a home there with his long-time mistress.[31]