Farewell My Concubine (film)

Farewell My Concubine is a 1993 Chinese historical drama film directed by Chen Kaige, starring Leslie Cheung, Gong Li, and Zhang Fengyi. An adaptation of the novel by Lilian Lee, the film is set in a politically tumultuous China during the 20th century, from the early days of the Republic of China to the aftermath of the Cultural Revolution. It chronicles the troubled relationships between two Peking opera actors and lifelong friends Cheng Dieyi (Cheung) and Duan Xiaolou (Zhang), and Xiaolou's wife Juxian (Gong). The movie is about confusion of identity and blurred lines between real life and the stage, portrayed by the revered opera actor Dieyi, whose unrequited love for Xiaolou persists through the movie. Scholar Ying notes that in order "[t]o attract the international audience, Chinese history and Peking Opera are drawn close while homosexuality, individual perversities and moral dilemmas are transposed distant". [2]Commentators also noted themes of political and societal disturbances in 20th-century China, which is typical of the Chinese Fifth Generation cinema.

Farewell My Concubine
Theatrical release poster
Traditional霸王別姬
Simplified霸王别姬
MandarinBà Wáng Bié Jī
LiterallyThe Hegemon-King Bids Farewell to His Concubine
Directed byChen Kaige
Produced byHsu Feng
Screenplay byLilian Lee
Lu Wei
Based onFarewell My Concubine
by Lilian Lee rewritten from Qiuhaitang (秋海棠) by Qin Shouou (zh:秦瘦鷗)
Starring
Music byZhao Jiping
CinematographyGu Changwei
Edited byPei Xiaonan
Production
company
Beijing Film Studio
Distributed byMiramax Films (US)
Release date
  • 1 January 1993 (1993-01-01) (Hong Kong)
  • 15 October 1993 (1993-10-15) (United States)
Running time
171 minutes
157 minutes (US - Theatrical release only)
CountryChina
Hong Kong
LanguageMandarin
Box office$5,216,888 (US)[1]

Farewell My Concubine premiered on January 1, 1993, in Hong Kong. Upon release, the film received generally positive reviews from contemporary critics and won the Palme d'Or at the 1993 Cannes Film Festival,[note 1] becoming the first Chinese-language film to achieve the honour. It further won accolades including a Golden Globe for Best Foreign Language Film and a BAFTA for Best Film Not in the English Language, and received two nominations at the 66th Academy Awards for Best Cinematography and Best Foreign Language Film. The film was initially removed from theatres and banned in Mainland China—for less than two months—because of its depiction of homosexuality and suicide.[3][4] Farewell My Concubine is considered one of the landmark films of the Fifth Generation movement that brought Chinese film directors to world attention.[5][6]

Plot

Douzi, a boy endowed with feminine features, is abandoned by his prostitute mother to an all-boys Peking opera troupe supervised by Master Guan. Shitou, who is to be lifelong friends with Douzi, is more masculine. A few years later, a teenage Douzi is trained to play dan (female roles), while Shitou learns jing (painted face male roles). When practising the play "Dreaming of the World Outside the Nunnery", Douzi constantly mistakes the line "I am by nature a girl, not a boy" with "I am by nature a boy, not a girl" subjecting himself to severe physical punishments. Douzi along with another student, Laizi, attempts to run away but Douzi decides to pursue acting seriously after witnessing an opera performance. Upon returning, they find the whole troupe being punished for their desertion, and Douzi is beaten. As a result, Laizi hangs himself.

An agent who provides funding for opera plays comes to the troupe to seek potentials. When Douzi repeats the same mistake in front of the agent, Shitou viciously jams a brass tobacco pipe into Douzi's mouth, causing it to bleed, and commands to start over. While bleeding from his mouth, Douzi finally whispers, "I am by nature a girl, not a boy". He then delivers the entire monologue successfully, to the joy of the troupe, and secures the agent. The troupe is invited to perform for eunuch Zhang. Shitou and Douzi are brought to Zhang's house where they find a finely crafted sword, which Shitou promises to one day gift to Douzi, as the hero would do for his concubine. Zhang asks to meet Douzi in his room and sexually assaults him. Douzi does not mention this to anyone, but Shitou implicitly knows what happened. On their way home, Douzi adopts an abandoned baby, who later comes under Master Guan's training.

Memorabilia from the film exhibited at "The Art of Leslie Cheung's Movie Images", April 2013, Hong Kong Central Library.

Years go by, Douzi and Shitou become Peking opera stars under stage names Cheng Dieyi and Duan Xiaolou, respectively. Their signature performance is the play Farewell My Concubine, where Dieyi plays the concubine Consort Yu and Xiaolou plays the hero Xiang Yu. Their fame brings the attention of Yuan Shiqing, a reputable person who attends their performances. Yuan Shiqing also possesses a sword similar to the one that Dieyi and Xiaolou found, which he gives to Dieyi. The adult Dieyi has an unrequited love for Xiaolou, but when Xiaolou marries Juxian, a headstrong courtesan at an upscale brothel, Dieyi and Xiaolou's relationship begins to fall apart. The love triangle between Dieyi, Xiaolou, and Juxian leads to jealousy and betrayals, becoming more complicated with the successive political upheavals following from the Second Sino-Japanese War. When Master Guan dies, the abandoned baby, now Xiao Si, comes under Dieyi's training to continue learning dan roles.

When the communist forces win the civil war, Xiao Si becomes an avid follower of the new government. Dieyi's addiction to opium negatively affects his performances, but he ultimately rehabilitates with the help of Xiaolou and Juxian. Xiao Si nurtures resentment against Dieyi because of his rigorous teachings and usurps his role in Farewell My Concubine, which everyone but Dieyi has known beforehand. Devastated by betrayal, Dieyi secludes himself and refuses to reconcile with Xiaolou. As the Cultural Revolution comes, Yuan Shiqing is executed and the entire opera troupe is put on a struggle session by the Red Guards where, under pressure, Xiaolou and Dieyi accuse each other of counterrevolutionary acts. Dieyi also tells the guards that Juxian was a prostitute. To protect himself from further prosecution, Xiaolou swears that he does not love her and will "make a clean break" with her. Juxian is heartbroken, and her final act is to return the sword to Dieyi before committing suicide. Afterward, Xiao Si is caught by the Red Guards when he is singing Consort Yu's lines to the mirror alone in a practice room.

Fast forward to 1977, Dieyi and Xiaolou reunite, seeming to have mended their relationship. They once again practice Farewell My Concubine; Xiaolou begins with the line "I am by nature a boy," to which Dieyi makes the same mistake of finishing with "I am not a girl." The film ends with both of them completing their performance but this time Dieyi takes Xiaolou's sword and commits suicide, just as the fictional concubine does in the opera.

Cast
ActorCharacter
Leslie Cheung(程蝶衣) / Xiaodouzi (小豆子)
Yin ZhiCheng Dieyi (teenager)
Ma MingweiCheng Dieyi (child)
Zhang FengyiDuan Xiaolou (段小楼) / Xiaoshitou (小石头)
Zhao HailongDuan Xiaolou (teenager)
Fei YangDuan Xiaolou (child)
Gong LiJuxian (菊仙 Júxiān)
Ge YouYuan Shiqing (袁世卿 Yuán Shìqīng)
Lü QiMaster Guan (Simplified: 关师傅, Traditional: 關師傅, Pinyin: Guān-shīfu)
Ying DaNa Kun (那坤 Nā Kūn)
YidiEunuch Zhang (Simplified: 张公公, Traditional: 張公公, Pinyin: Zhāng-gōnggong)
Zhi YitongSaburo Aoki (青木 三郎, Chinese Pinyin: Qīngmù Sānláng, Japanese: Aoki Saburō)
Lei HanXiaosi
Li ChunXiaosi (teenager)
Li DanLaizi (Simplified: 小癞子, Traditional: 小癩子, Pinyin: Xiǎo Làizǐ)
Yang YongchaoLaizi (child)
David Wu(American actor)Wu Dai-wai]] as Red Guard (Simplified: 红卫兵, Traditional: 紅衛兵, Pinyin: Hóngwèibīng)

Production

Chen Kaige was first given a copy of Lilian Lee's novel in 1988, and although Chen found the story of the novel to be "compelling", he found the emotional subtext of the novel "a bit thin". After meeting with Lee, they recruited Chinese writer Lu Wei for the screenplay, and in 1991 the first draft of the screenplay came about.[7][8] The director chose the heroic suicide of Dieyi over original story’s banality in order to present the “Lie nu” image of Dieyi to emphasize the women’s liberation which was commonly found in the Fifth Generation films.[9]

Hong Kong actor Leslie Cheung was used in the film to attract audiences because melodramas were not a popular genre. It was believed that it was the first film where Cheung spoke Mandarin Chinese. However, for most of the movie Cheung's voice is dubbed by Beijing actor Yang Lixin. Director Chen left Cheung's original voice in two scenes, where Cheung's voice is distorted by physical and mental distress[10]. Due to Gong Li's international stardom, she was cast as one of the main characters in the film.[11]

Historical Background

The historical background of the film is multi-layered and complicated, which contributes to the motif and the form of the film.[2] The 90's period saw China trying to do "damage control" to the country's image after the massacre that happened during the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests. David Shambaugh talks about the government's new agenda that focused on "restoring the appearance of unity in the leadership, ensuring the loyalty of the military, reestablishing social order, reasserting central control over the provinces, recentralizing and retrenching the economy, and redefining China's role in a post-Cold War international environment".[12] In addition to the mentioned changes in the political climate, at the time of the film's release, the atmosphere around the criticism of Cultural Revolution shifted. As Luo Hui notes "criticizing the Cultural Revolution had become permissible, even fashionable", allowing the film to highlight the devastation the world of art, as well as other aspects of Chinese society like medicine and education, suffered at the hands of the Cultural Revolution movement.[13]

Release

Release in China

The film premiered in Shanghai in July 1993 but was removed from theatres after two weeks for further censorial review and subsequently banned in August. The film was objected to for its portrayal of homosexuality, suicide, and violence perpetrated under Mao Zedong's Communist government during the Cultural Revolution. Because the film won the Palme d'Or at the 1993 Cannes Film Festival, the ban was met with international outcry.[14] Feeling there was "no choice" and fearing it hurt China's bid for the 2000 Summer Olympics, officials allowed the film to resume public showings in September. This release featured a censored version; scenes dealing with the Cultural Revolution and homosexuality were cut, and the final scene was revised to "soften the blow of the suicide".[15]

Box office and reception

The film was released to three theaters on 15 October 1993, and grossed $69,408 in the opening weekend. Its final grossing in the US market is $5,216,888.[1]

In 2005, some 25,000 Hong Kong film-enthusiasts voted it their favorite Chinese-language film of the century (the second was Wong Kar-wai's Days of Being Wild).[16]

Nationalistic Expression and International Audience

The international perspective of the movie were put into question by critics who are concerned that the visual and artistic settings in the movie are too culturally inherent. On the other hand, the contents are internationally applicable. The enriching contexts, symbols, and political icons are turned into colorful Oriental spectacles that arouse Westerner's fantasies. China's image is used as an object of signification, a cultural exhibition on display and a major selling point. Thus, they charge the movie for dancing to the tunes set forth by the Western cultural imaginary about China.[17]

Some critics point to the fact that Chen lives in the United States, which have provided him with overall understanding of international reception and engineered the movie to fit a domestic and international audience. Chen knows how to tell a more comprehensible story to Westerners. Chen understands the international audience's perceptions and attitudes towards Chinese history, and sexuality.[18]

Miramax edited version

At the 1993 Cannes Film Festival, the film was awarded the highest prize, the Palme d'Or.[19] Miramax Films mogul Harvey Weinstein purchased the distribution rights and removed fourteen minutes, resulting in a 157-minute cut. This is the version seen in U.S. theaters (and also in the U.K.). According to Peter Biskind's book, Down and Dirty Pictures: Miramax, Sundance and the Rise of Independent Film, Louis Malle, who was president of the Cannes jury that year, said: "The film we admired so much in Cannes is not the film seen in this country [the U.S.], which is twenty minutes shorter – but seems longer because it doesn't make any sense. It was better before those guys made cuts."

The uncut 171-minute version has been released by Miramax on DVD.

Music and Soundtrack
External video
當愛已成往事 - Youtube
歌唱祖國 - Youtube
中国人民解放军进行曲 - Youtube
大海航行靠舵手 - Youtube
Song TypeNamecomposerlyricssinger
Theme songBygone LoveJonathan LeeJonathan LeeOrginal Singer：Sandy Lam；Jonathan Lee
MV Director：Xueer Qu
  • Leslie Cheung covered the theme song "When Love Has Gone" in 1995。
EpisodeDon't get itJonathan LeeLin HuangJonathan Lee
MV Director：Kaige Chen
  • 《Don't get it》does not appear in this film, but is only included in "Farewell My Concubine Movie Soundtrack".
EpisodeZu Guo SongXin WangXin Wang
EpisodeMarch of Chinese PLALvchen ZhengMu Gong
EpisodeSailing the Seas Depends on the HelmsmanShuangyin WangYuwen Li

Reception

Critical reception

Roger Ebert awarded the film four stars, praising the plot as "almost unbelievably ambitious" and executed with "freedom and energy".[20] The New York Times critic Vincent Canby hailed it for "action, history, exotic color", positively reviewing the acting of Gong Li, Leslie Cheung and Zhang Fengyi.[21] In New York, David Denby criticized the "spectacle" but felt it would be worthy of excelling in international cinema, portraying a triumph of love and culture despite dark moments.[22] Hal Hinson, writing for The Washington Post, highlighted "its swooning infatuation with the theater- with its colors, its vitality and even its cruel rigors".[23] Desson Howe was less positive, writing the first half had impact but gives way to "novel-like meandering", with less point.[24]

The film was included in The New York Times' list of The Best 1000 Movies Ever Made in 2004[25] and Time's list of Best Movies of All Time in 2005.[26] It was ranked No. 97 in Empire magazine's "The 100 Best Films Of World Cinema" in 2010,[27] and No. 1 in Time Out's "100 Best Mainland Chinese Films" feature in 2014.[7] The film has an 88% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, based on 34 reviews.[28] The BBC placed the film at number 12 on its 2018 list of the 100 greatest foreign language films.[29] It ranked at number 55 on the Hong Kong Film Awards Association (HKFAA)'s list of the Best 100 Chinese-Language Motion Pictures in 2005.[30] Regarding public reception, Farewell My Concubine topped a 2005 poll of the most beloved films in Hong Kong conducted by Handerson ArtReach.[31]

Accolades

At Cannes, it tied for the Palme d'Or with Jane Campion's The Piano from New Zealand.[24] Farewell My Concubine remains to date the only Chinese-language film to win the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival.[32]

Year Award Category Recipient(s) Result Ref(s)
1993 Boston Society of Film Critics Best Foreign Language Film Chen Kaige Won [33]
1993 Camerimage Silver Frog Gu Changwei Won [34]
1993 Cannes Film Festival Palme d'Or Chen Kaige Won [19]
FIPRESCI Prize Won
1993 Los Angeles Film Critics Association Best Foreign Language Film Chen Kaige Won [35]
1993 National Board of Review Best Foreign Language Film Chen Kaige Won [36]
Top Foreign Language Films Won
1993 New York Film Critics Circle Best Foreign Language Film Chen Kaige Won [37]
Best Supporting Actress Li Gong Won
1994 Academy Awards Best Foreign Language Film Chen Kaige Nominated [38]
Best Cinematography Gu Changwei Nominated
1994 British Academy Film Awards Best Film not in the English Language Hsu Feng, Chen Kaige Won [39]
1994 César Awards Best Foreign Film Chen Kaige Nominated [40]
1994 Golden Globe Awards Best Foreign Language Film Chen Kaige Won [41]
1994 London Film Critics' Circle Best Foreign Language Film Chen Kaige Won [42]
1994 Mainichi Film Awards Best Foreign Language Film Chen Kaige Won [43]

See also

References

Notes
  1. Shared with The Piano

Citations
  1. "Farewell My Concubine (1993)". Box Office Mojo. 1993-11-02. Retrieved 2016-02-03.
  2. Ying, Liang. "Making the Familiar Strange and the Strange Familiar-Farewell, My Concubine and Its Crossing National Borders". US-China Foreign Language. 9: 530–538.
  3. D. Kristof, Nicholas (4 August 1993). "China Bans One of Its Own Films; Cannes Festival Gave It Top Prize". The New York Times. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
  4. "China bids 'Farewell' to ban". Variety. 3 September 1993. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
  5. Clark 2005, p. 159.
  6. Zha 1995, pp. 96–100.
  7. "100 best Chinese Mainland Films: the countdown". Time Out.
  8. Braester 2010, p. 335.
  9. Lau, Jenny Kwok Wah (1995). ""Farewell My Concubine": History, Melodrama, and Ideology in Contemporary Pan-Chinese Cinema". Film Quarterly. 49 (1): 16–27. doi:10.2307/1213489. ISSN 0015-1386.
  10. Wang, Yiman, 1972- author. Remaking Chinese cinema : through the prism of Shanghai, Hong Kong, and Hollywood. ISBN 978-0-8248-7117-8. OCLC 986628712.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. Lau, Jenny Kwok Wah (1995). ""Farewell My Concubine": History, Melodrama, and ideology in Contemporary Pan-Chinese Cinema". Film Quarterly. 49 (1): 16–27. doi:10.1525/fq.1995.49.1.04a00030. JSTOR 1213489.
  12. Shambaugh, David (1991-01-01). "China in 1990: The Year of Damage Control". Asian Survey. 31 (1): 36–49. doi:10.2307/2645183. ISSN 0004-4687.
  13. Hui, Luo. (2007). "Theatricality and Cultural Critique in Chinese Cinema". Asian Theatre Journal. 25 (1): 122–137. doi:10.1353/atj.2008.0010. ISSN 1527-2109.
  14. Kristof, Nicholas D. (August 4, 1993). "China Bans One of Its Own Films; Cannes Festival Gave It Top Prize". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved June 14, 2017.
  15. Tyler, Patrick E. (September 4, 1993). "China's Censors Issue a Warning". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved June 14, 2017.
  16. "爱白网". Aibai.com. 2005-05-28. Archived from the original on 2016-03-03. Retrieved 2016-02-03.
  17. Lau, Jenny Kwok Wah (1995). ""Farewell My Concubine": History, Melodrama, and Ideology in Contemporary Pan-Chinese Cinema". Film Quarterly. 49 (1): 16–27. doi:10.2307/1213489. ISSN 0015-1386.
  18. Ying, Liang (August 2011). "Making the Familiar Strange and the Strange Familiar-Farewell, My Concubine and Its Crossing National Borders". US-China Foreign Language. 9: 530–538.
  19. "Farewell My Concubine (1993) - Awards". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015.
  20. Ebert, Roger (29 October 1993). "Farewell My Concubine". Rogerebert.com. Retrieved 26 June 2017.
  21. Canby, Vincent (8 October 1993). "Review/Film Festival; Action, History, Politics And Love Above All". The New York Times. Retrieved 26 June 2017.
  22. Denby, David (25 October 1993). "A Half-Century at the Opera". New York. p. 84.
  23. Hinson, Hal (27 October 1993). "Farewell My Concubine". The Washington Post. Retrieved 26 June 2017.
  24. Howe, Desson (29 October 1993). "Farewell My Concubine". The Washington Post. Retrieved 26 June 2017.
  25. "The Best 1,000 Movies Ever Made". The New York Times. Retrieved 14 March 2016.
  26. "Full List | Best Movies of All Time". Time. 12 February 2005. Retrieved 14 March 2016.
  27. "The 100 Best Films Of World Cinema – 97. Farewell My Concubine". Empire. 2010-06-11.
  28. "FAREWELL MY CONCUBINE (BA WANG BIE JI) (1993)". Rotten Tomatoes. Retrieved 26 June 2017.
  29. "The 100 greatest foreign-language films". BBC. 30 October 2018. Retrieved 6 November 2019.
  30. "Best 100 Chinese-Language Motion Pictures" (in Chinese). Hong Kong Film Awards Association. Retrieved 6 November 2019.
  31. "'Farewell My Concubine' most appreciated in HK". China Daily. 27 May 2005. Retrieved 6 November 2019.
  32. Blair, Gavin J. "'Farewell My Concubine' Director Chen Kaige to Head Tokyo Film Fest Jury". The Hollywood Reporter.
  33. "Past Award Winners". Boston Society of Film Critics. Archived from the original on 2012-02-04. Retrieved 26 June 2017.
  34. "Camerimage 1993". Camerimage. Archived from the original on 2017-04-22. Retrieved 26 June 2017.
  35. "19TH ANNUAL LOS ANGELES FILM CRITICS ASSOCIATION AWARDS". Los Angeles Film Critics Association. Retrieved 26 June 2017.
  36. "1993 Award Winners". National Board of Review. Retrieved 26 June 2017.
  37. Matthews, Jack (16 December 1993). "N.Y. Writers Pick 'List' but Bypass Spielberg : Movies: Film Critics Circle echoes its L.A. counterpart by naming 'Schindler's List' the best work of 1993 and 'The Piano's' Jane Campion best director". The Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 26 June 2017.
  38. "The 66th Academy Awards". Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. Retrieved 26 June 2017.
  39. "Film in 1994". British Academy of Film and Television Arts. Retrieved 26 June 2017.
  40. "PALMARÈS 1994 - 19 ÈME CÉRÉMONIE DES CÉSAR". Académie des Arts et Techniques du Cinéma. Archived from the original on 19 March 2016. Retrieved 26 June 2017.
  41. "Farewell My Concubine". Hollywood Foreign Press Association. Retrieved 26 June 2017.
  42. Leung 2010, p. ix.
  43. "49TH (1994)". Mainichi Film Awards. Retrieved 26 June 2017.

Further reading
  • Braester, Yomi (17 March 2010). Painting the City Red: Chinese Cinema and the Urban Contract. Rey Chow, Harry Harootunian, Masao Miyoshi. Durham [NC]: Duke University Press. p. 335. ISBN 9780822392750. Retrieved 3 February 2016 – via Google Books.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  • Clark, Paul (2005). Reinventing China: A Generation and Its Films. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  • Braester, Yomi. Farewell My Concubine: National Myth and City Memories. In Chinese Films in Focus: 25 New Takes, edited by Chris Berry, 89–96. London: British Film Institute, 2003.
  • Leung, Helen Hok-Sze (2010). Farewell My Concubine: A Queer Film Classic (Large Print 16pt). Vancouver: Read How You Want, Arsenal Pulp Press. ISBN 978-1459608368.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  • Kaplan, Ann. Reading Formations and Chen Kaige's Farewell My Concubine. In Sheldon Lu, ed., Transnational Chinese Cinema: Identity, Nationhood, Gender. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1997.
  • Larson, Wendy. The Concubine and the Figure of History: Chen Kaige's Farewell My Concubine. In Sheldon Lu, ed., Transnational Chinese Cinema: Identity, Nationhood, Gender. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1997; also published as Bawang bieji: Ji yu lishi xingxiang, Qingxiang (1997); also in Harry Kuoshu, ed., Chinese Film, ed. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000.
  • Lau, Jenny Kwok Wah. Farewell My Concubine': History, Melodrama, and Ideology in Contemporary Pan-Chinese Cinema. Film Quarterly 49, 1 (Fall, 1995).
  • Lim, Song Hwee. The Uses of Femininity: Chen Kaige's Farewell My Concubine and Zhang Yuan's East Palace, West Palace. In Lim, Celluloid Comrades: Representations of Male Homosexuality in Contemporary Chinese Cinemas. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i, 2006, 69–98.
  • Lu, Sheldon Hsiao-peng. "National Cinema, Cultural Critique, Transnational Capital: The Films of Zhang Yimou." In Transnational Chinese Cinema, edited by Sheldon Lu, 105–39. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 199.
  • McDougall, Bonnie S. "Cross-dressing and the Disappearing Woman in Modern Chinese Fiction, Drama and Film: Reflections on Chen Kaige's Farewell My Concubine." China Information 8, 4 (Summer 1994): 42–51.
  • Metzger, Sean. "Farewell My Fantasy." The Journal of Homosexuality 39, 3/4 (2000): 213–32. Rpt. in Andrew Grossman, ed. Queer Asian Cinema: Shadows in the Shade. NY: Harrington Press, 2000, 213–232.
  • Xu, Ben. "Farewell My Concubine and Its Western and Chinese Viewers." Quarterly Review of Film and Television 16, 2 (1997).
  • Zha, Jianying (1995). China Pop : How Soap Operas, Tabloids, and Bestsellers Are Transforming a Culture. New York: The New Press, W.W. Norton.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  • Zhang, Benzi. "Figures of Violence and Tropes of Homophobia: Reading Farewell My Concubine between East and West." Journal of Popular Culture: Comparative Studies in the World's Civilizations 33, 2 (1999): 101–109.
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