Cathedral of Ani

Following more than two centuries of Arab rule, Armenia gained independence under the leadership of the Bagratid (Bagratuni) dynasty around 885. King Ashot III made Ani capital in 961, after which the city emerged as a prosperous urban center with 100,000 residents at its height.[15][16][17] The construction of the cathedral began in 989.[18] The architect Trdat was commissioned by Bagratid King Smbat II to build a cathedral in the new capital of the Armenian kingdom.[19][20] The construction was halted when Smbat died in 989, according to an inscription on the south wall.[21][1] Meanwhile, Trdat was hired to direct the repairs of the dome of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, which had collapsed in an earthquake.[22][18] Trdat returned from Constantinople in 993.[23] The construction was continued and completed by Queen Katranide[1][24][25] (Katramide),[26] the wife of King Gagik I, Smbat's brother and successor.[21] It was completed either in 1001 or 1010.[lower-alpha 3] According to Christina Maranci the generally accepted date of completion is 1001, but it may have extended until 1010.[19] The contradiction is based on the reading of the inscription of the cathedral's northern wall.[37][38] The cathedral served as the seat of the catholicos,[26] the head of the Armenian Apostolic Church from its foundation in 1001[39] until the mid-11th century (1046 or 1051).[40][41] Thus, for around half a century Ani was both the religious and secular center of Armenia.[39]

A silver cross originally stood on its conical dome and a crystal chandelier, bought by King Smbat II from India, hang in the cathedral. In the 1010s, during the reign of Catholicos Sarkis I, a mausoleum dedicated to the Hripsimean virgins was erected next to the cathedral. The mausoleum was built on some of the remnants of the virgins brought from Vagharshapat (Etchmiadzin).[26] In the 1040s–1050s inscriptions were left on the cathedral's eastern and western walls about urban projects, such as restoration of defensive walls, installation of water pipes and easing of the tax burden on the residents of Ani.[1]

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  Reconstruction of the cathedral's original state by Toros Toramanian.[lower-alpha 4]
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  Reconstruction of the cathedral by Charles Texier (1842)[18]
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  Reconstruction of the cathedral by Wilhelm Lübke (1881)[42]
• 
  Cross section of the church per Toramanian[43]
• 
  ground plan[3][18]

Ani surrendered to the Byzantine Empire in 1045, who held it until 1064, when the city was captured by the Seljuks, led by Alp Arslan.[44] Alp Arslan and his soldiers performed their first prayer in Ani at the cathedral.[12] Consequently, the cathedral was converted into a mosque[1][10] and called Fethiye Mosque[45][46] (Turkish: Fethiye Cami).[lower-alpha 5] Official Turkish sources often refer to it by that name.[51]

In 1124 a crescent was placed on the cathedral's dome by the Shaddadid amir of Ani. In response, the Armenian population asked King David IV of Georgia to capture Ani, after which the cathedral returned to Christian usage.[1][38] However, only two years later, in 1126, Ani came under the control of the Shaddadids.[1] During the 12th century historians Mkhitar Anetsi, Samuel Anetsi and philosopher Hovhannes Sarkavag served at the cathedral in various capacities.[1] Mkhitar Anetsi was an elder priest at the cathedral in the second half of the 12th century.[52] In 1198 Ani was conquered by the Georgian-Armenian Zakarid (Mkhargrdzeli) princes, under whose control the cathedral prospered. In 1213 the wealthy merchant Tigran Honents restored the cathedral's steps.[1]

Damage done to the cathedral by the 1988 earthquake.

Ani's long-term decline began in 1239 when Mongols sacked the city and massacred its population.[53] In 1319 a devastating earthquake struck Ani. It resulted in the collapse of the cathedral's conical roof.[1][24][38] Ani was completely deserted by the 18th century.[54] The drum reportedly collapsed during an 1832[38] or 1840[55] earthquake. The north-western corner of the cathedral was heavily damaged by a 1988 earthquake with its epicenter in modern Armenia's north.[1] It resulted in a large gaping hole. According to VirtualAni it also caused "a serious rent in the south-west corner; by 1998 parts of the roof here had started to fall."[38] Lavrenti Barseghian wrote in 2003 that the damage from the earthquake was so great that the entire building would collapse unless strengthened and restored.[56]

Explosions in a quarry on the Armenian side of the border, across the Akhurian River, reportedly caused some damage to the cathedral in the early 2000s.[57][38] In mid-June 2001 an "ear-splitting explosion rocked the site just as a group of Armenian Americans had gathered to pray at the cathedral."[58] Armenian architectural historian Samvel Karapetyan, who witnessed the explosions on the Armenian side during his visit to Ani in July 2000, stated that the explosions continued until 2004/2005.[59] However, Turkish accusations continued until 2008.[10] According to an article in Hürriyet by Vercihan Ziflioğlu, it was only in 2009 that Armenia halted blasting activities, reportedly, after Turkey's complaint at the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS).[60]

The cathedral is a domed, centrally-planned basilica.[lower-alpha 6] According to Richard Krautheimer it derives its plan from that of the 7th century cathedral of Talin, with only minor differences.[62] The dome was supported on pendentives and stood atop the "intersection of four barrel vaults elevated to a cruciform design and topped with gabled roofs." In the interior, "freestanding piers divide the space into three aisles, the nave of which terminates in an eastern apse flanked by two story side chapels."[63] Sirarpie Der Nersessian noted that its interior is imposing "through the harmony of the proportions." She added, "The blind arcade with slender columns and ornate arches, the delicate interlaces carved around the door and windows add to the beauty of the exterior."[64]

The cathedral is built, primarily, of yellow, but also black and red polished tufa. It has three entrances. The main one is on the western side. The entrances on the northern and southern sides, though secondary, are richly decorated. Its windows are narrow and long, with ornamented frames.[2]

Dimensions

The cathedral is 34.3 m (113 ft) long and 24.7 m (81 ft) wide.[lower-alpha 1] Originally standing 38 m (125 ft) high,[4] it was Ani's tallest structure.[6] It is very large by the standards of Armenian architecture.[9] Architecture historian Murad Hasratyan suggests that its relatively large size and rich ornaments symbolize the revived Armenian statehood under the Bagratids.[1] Christina Maranci suggested what she describes as an "extremely tentative" hypothesis that the relatively large proportion of the cathedral may have been a "reflection of Trdat's memory of the vast continuous spaces" of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, the dome of which he repaired.[65] However, it is considered small if judged by a European standard, wrote H. F. B. Lynch and added, "it is nevertheless a stately building. It bears the imprint of that undefinable quality, beauty, and can scarcely fail to arouse a thrill of delight in the spectator."[66] Luigi Villari wrote in his 1906 book on travels in the Caucasus: "From a distance it seems to be merely a plain rectangular structure with no architectural pretensions. But on closer inspection it proves to be a building of really great beauty and of the most perfect proportions."[67]

The cathedral is widely considered a masterpiece of Armenian architecture.[lower-alpha 7] It is the largest and most impressive structure of Ani.[48][69] Armen Kazaryan describes it as the most significant structure of the entire Bagratid period.[70] The cathedral is known for its novel design features.[9] Authors of Global History of Architecture wrote that it "deserves to be listed among the principal monuments of the time because of its pointed arches and clustered columns and piers."[28] Josef Strzygowski argued that the cathedral is the most valuable achievement of Armenian architecture from the European viewpoint.[71] David Marshall Lang wrote that the cathedral's building techniques are "far ahead of the contemporary Anglo-Saxon and Norman architecture of western Europe."[72] H. F. B. Lynch wrote: "The impression which we take away from our survey of these various features is that we have been introduced to a monument of the highest artistic merit, denoting a standard of culture which was far in advance of the contemporary standards in the West."[73] Sirarpie Der Nersessian wrote that it "deserves to be listed among the important examples of medieval architecture."[64] The New International Encyclopedia characterized it as the "most interesting church of Armenia."[74] David Roden Buxton suggested that the cathedral deserves far more fame than it actually has.[lower-alpha 8] Richard Phené Spiers wrote in the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1911):

The most important example of the Armenian style is found in the cathedral at Ani, the capital of Armenia, dating from A.D. 1010. In this church pointed arches and coupled piers are found, with all the characteristics of a complete pointed-arch style, which, as Fergusson remarks, "might be found in Italy or Sicily in the 12th or 14th century." Externally the walls are decorated with lofty blind arcades similar to those in the cathedral at Pisa and other churches in the same town, which are probably fifty years later. The elaborate fret carving of the window dressings and hood moulds are probably borrowed from the tile decoration found in Persia.[36]

The main church of Marmashen monastery (dated 988–1029) is considered a miniature of Ani Cathedral.[76] Richard Krautheimer wrote that the exterior walls of both the church of Marmashen and the cathedral of Ani are "articulated by blind arcades resting on slender colonnettes, single or in pairs."[62] There are significant structural differences between the two.[77] Stepan Mnatsakanian noted that the similarities are limited to the exterior decorations because there are significant differences in their floor plans.[78]

The ground plan of Holy Saviour's Church in Gyumri, completed in 1873, is based on that of Ani Cathedral.[79] However, the church is significantly larger than the cathedral and is not an exact replica of the latter.[80]

The blind arcades on the three apses of the Armenian Cathedral of Lviv—added sometime before 1902—are a "surprisingly faithful reproduction of an analogous decoration" on the external walls of cathedral of Ani.[81]

Some European scholars, especially scholars of the Near East,[82] have suggested that the use of pointed arches and clustered piers in the cathedral influenced the development of Gothic architecture. The theory was popularized by Josef Strzygowski, who was the first European to thoroughly study Armenian architecture and placed Armenia in the center of European architecture.[83] Strzygowski wrote in the Origin of Christian Church Art (1920): "It is a delight, in a church earlier than AD 1000, to see the builder, the court architect Trdat, carrying Armenian art so logically and so successfully past 'Romanesque' to 'Gothic'."[84][82] Several scholars had proposed this view before Strzygowski. H. F. B. Lynch in his book on Armenia published in 1901 suggested that the cathedral has "many of the characteristics of the Gothic style, of which it establishes the Oriental origin."[73] William Lethaby found the cathedral "strangely western." He wrote in Medieval Art (1912) that it is especially remarkable because its pointed arches, clustered piers, ribs and colonnades correspond to the Gothic of a hundred years later.[85][82] Edith Browne wrote in 1912 that the cathedral is "a very specimen of transition to the Gothic style."[86]

In examining the possible influence of Caucasian architecture in the West, David Roden Buxton wrote on the cathedral of Ani in 1937:[75]

... inside it bears the semblance of a Gothic cathedral such as Western Europe might have seen two centuries later. Pairs of clustered columns support a high pointed vault, and on either side is an aisle with narrow pointed arches like those of the "Early English" style. It is assuredly a striking example of parallel evolution, even if all idea of a connection with the Gothic must be dismissed.

Cecil Stewart noted that the most interesting features of the cathedral are its "pointed arches and vaults and the clustering or coupling of the columns in the Gothic manner."[87] For David Talbot Rice the cathedral is "astonishingly Gothic in every detail."[31] David Marshall Lang argued that the appearance of pointed arches and clustered piers together is "considered one of the hallmarks of mature Gothic architecture."[72]

The theory found support among Armenian architecture historians, such as Toros Toramanian,[24] Tiran Marutuan,[88] Murad Hasratyan.[lower-alpha 9] Rouben Paul Adalian wrote, "the interior with its pointed arches and clustered piers rising to the ribbed ceiling vaults, included innovations whose parallels would appear in Gothic architecture in Western Europe a century later."[9] Armen Der Kiureghian wrote that the cathedral is "significant from an architectural standpoint, as it contains elements of Gothic architecture, i.e., clustered columns and pointed arches, long before they appeared in Europe."[89]

According to World Monuments Fund the cathedral is "often considered a source of inspiration for many of the key features of Gothic architecture, which became a dominant architectural style in western Europe more than a century later."[68] The Ambassadors Fund for Cultural Preservation suggested that the cathedral "[bears] silent witness to the origins of the Western Gothic style."[90]

Criticism and response

Art historian Sirarpie Der Nersessian rejected the postulated "proto-Gothic" character of the ogival arches of the cathedral of Ani which, she argued, "do not serve the same function in supporting the vault."[91] Although Adrian Stokes saw the cathedral as holding "some balance between wall architecture and the linear Gothic to come," he did not find "the feeling for mass and space that transfixes him at Rimini or Luciano Laurana's Quattro Cento courtyard in the Palace of Urbino."[82] The website Virtual Ani writes that there is "no evidence to indicate that there was a connection between Armenian architecture and the development of the Gothic style in Western Europe."[38] Lucy Der Manuelian argues that there is a documented evidence of the presence of Armenians in Western Europe during the Middle Ages, who could have carried this information to the West.[92]

On October 1, 2010 a Muslim prayer was performed at the cathedral by members and supporters of the far-right Nationalist Movement Party (MHP). The formal occasion was to commemorate the 1064 Seljuk conquest of Ani, but it was widely seen as a nationalist retaliation for the Christian mass—the first since the Armenian Genocide of 1915—at the Cathedral of Aghtamar at Lake Van on September 19.[113][50][114] Some two thousand people, including senior members of the MHP, such as party leader Devlet Bahçeli, participated in the prayer.[47] The crowd waved Turkish flags and chanted Allahu Akbar before saying prayers in and around the cathedral. They were accompanied by an Ottoman-style military marching band.[18][51] The prayer was authorized by the Turkish Ministry of Culture,[50] and was attended by believers from Azerbaijan and broadcast live by three Azerbaijani TV channels.[115]

The prayer was widely denounced for its political nature. An MP from the ruling AKP called it an illegal "political show" connected with the Aghtamar mass,[46] while art historian Heghnar Watenpaugh described the event as an example of "political stagecraft."[114] According to Aris Nalcı of the Turkish-Armenian daily Agos it was "addressed to Turks, rather than Armenians."[116] According to commentary prepared by the Yapı Kredi Bank Economic Research, "the scene looked awkward to a large majority of Turks."[117] Hürriyet Daily News columnist Yusuf Kanlı described it as an "attempt [by Bahçeli] to woo and win back the lost nationalist-conservative vote."[118] Turkish-Armenian journalist Markar Esayan wrote in Taraf that what Bahçeli did at Ani was "in fact exploitation of religion."[119]

The Armenian Apostolic Church, in an issued statement, accused the Turkish authorities in "destroying Armenian monuments and misappropriating historical Armenian holy sites and cultural treasures."[120] Architecture scholar Samvel Karapetyan commented sarcastically: "We now have reason to be happy. For centuries, our churches were desecrated and turned into toilets, whereas now they are only doing a namaz [sic]."[51]