Boeing CST-100 Starliner

The Boeing CST-100 Starliner[5] (Crew Space Transportation-100) is a reusable crew capsule manufactured by Boeing as its participation in NASA's Commercial Crew Development (CCDev) program. Its primary purpose is to transport crew to the International Space Station (ISS) [6] and to private space stations such as the proposed Bigelow Aerospace Commercial Space Station.[7]

CST-100 Starliner
Calypso being placed atop an Atlas V.
ManufacturerBoeing
Country of originUnited States
OperatorBoeing
ApplicationsISS crew and cargo transport
Specifications
Spacecraft typeCrewed capsule
Design life
  • 60 hours (free flight) [1]
  • 210 days (docked) [1][2]
Launch mass13000 kg
Crew capacityUp to 7
Dimensions
  • Diameter (CM): 4.56 m [3]
  • Length (CM+SM): 5.03 m [3]
Volume11 m3 [4]
RegimeLow Earth
Production
StatusIn development and testing
Maiden launch20 December 2019, 11:36:43 UTC (uncrewed)
Last launch20 December 2019, 11:36:43 UTC (uncrewed)

The capsule has a diameter of 4.56 m,[3] which is slightly larger than the Apollo command module and smaller than the Orion capsule.[8] The Boeing Starliner holds a crew of up to seven people and is being designed to be able to remain in-orbit for up to seven months with reusability of up to ten missions.[9] It is designed to be compatible with four launch vehicles: Atlas V, Delta IV, Falcon 9, and Vulcan.[10]

In the first phase of its CCDev program NASA awarded Boeing US$18 million in 2010 for preliminary development of the spacecraft.[11] In the second phase Boeing was awarded a $93 million contract in 2011 for further spacecraft development.[12] On 3 August 2012, NASA announced the award of $460 million to Boeing to continue work on the CST-100 under the Commercial Crew Integrated Capability (CCiCap) Program.[13] On 16 September 2014, NASA selected the Boeing CST-100, along with SpaceX's Crew Dragon, for the Commercial Crew Transportation Capability (CCtCap) program, with an award of $4.2 billion.[14] On 30 July 2019, NASA had no specific dates for Commercial Crew launches, stating that this was under review pending a leadership change.[15]

The Boeing Starliner Orbital Flight Test (uncrewed test flight) launched with the Atlas V N22,[16] on 20 December 2019 from SLC-41 at Cape Canaveral, Florida. During the test, the Starliner experienced a timing anomaly that precluded a docking with the International Space Station.[17][18] Two days after launch, on 22 December 2019 at 12:58 UTC, with the successful landing at White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico, the Boeing Starliner Calypso became the first-ever crew-capable space capsule to make a land-based touchdown in the United States.[19]

Background
CST-100 crew mock up

The design draws upon Boeing's experience with NASA's Apollo, Space Shuttle and ISS programs as well as the Orbital Express project sponsored by the Department of Defense.[8] The CST-100 has no Orion heritage, but it is sometimes confused with the earlier and similar Orion-derived Orion Lite proposal that Bigelow Aerospace was reportedly working on with technical assistance from Lockheed Martin.[20] It will use the NASA Docking System for docking[21][22][23] and use the Boeing Lightweight Ablator for its heatshield.[24] The Starliner's solar cells will provide more than 2.9 kW of electricity, and will be placed on top of the micro-meteoroid debris shield located at the bottom of the spacecraft's service module.[25]

It is designed to be compatible with multiple launch vehicles, including the Atlas V, Delta IV, and Falcon 9, as well as the planned Vulcan.[10][26]

Unlike earlier U.S. space capsules, the CST-100 will make airbag-cushioned landings on the ground rather than into water. Five landing areas are planned in the Western United States, which will give the CST-100 about 450 landing opportunities every year.[27]

The CST-100 includes one space tourist seat, and the Boeing contract with NASA allows Boeing to price and sell passage to low Earth orbit on that seat.[28]

Development

The CST-100 name was first used when the capsule was revealed to the public by Bigelow Aerospace CEO Robert Bigelow in June 2010.[29] The letters CST stand for Crew Space Transportation.[30] Although it was reported that the number 100 in the name stands for 100 km, the height of the Kármán line which is one of several definitions of the boundary of space,[31][32] the naming was in fact an arbitrary designation created by the corporate office. The Rocketdyne RS-88 engine will be used for its launch escape system.[33]

Receiving the full fixed-price payments for the CCDev Phase 1 Space Act Agreement required a set of specific milestones to be met during 2010: [34]

  • Trade study and down-select between pusher-type and tractor-style launch escape system
  • System definition review
  • Abort System Hardware Demonstration Test
  • Base Heat Shield Fabrication Demonstration
  • Avionics Systems Integration Facility demonstration
  • CM Pressure Shell Fabrication Demonstration
  • Landing System Demonstration (drop test and water uprighting test)
  • Life Support Air Revitalization demonstration
  • Autonomous Rendezvous and Docking (AR&D) hardware/software demonstration
  • Crew Module Mockup demonstration
CST-100 pressure vessel at the former Orbiter Processing Facility in October 2011

In July 2010, Boeing stated that the capsule could be operational in 2015 with sufficient near-term approvals and funding, but also indicated they would proceed with the development of the CST-100 only if NASA implemented the commercial crew transport initiative that was announced by the Obama administration in its FY2011 budget request. Boeing executive Roger Krone stated that NASA investment would allow Boeing to close the business case, while this would be very difficult without NASA. In addition, a second destination besides the ISS would be needed to close the business case and Krone said that cooperation with Bigelow was crucial for this.[8]

Boeing was awarded a $92.3 million contract by NASA in April 2011 to continue to develop the CST-100 under CCDev phase 2.[35] On 3 August 2012, NASA announced the award of $460 million to Boeing to continue work on the CST-100 under the Commercial Crew Integrated Capability (CCiCap) Program.[13]

The wind tunnel testing of CST-100's outer mold line in December 2011.

On 31 October 2011, NASA announced that through a partnership with Space Florida, the Orbiter Processing Facility-3 at Kennedy Space Center would be leased to Boeing for manufacture and test of the CST-100 spacecraft.[36]

On 16 September 2014, NASA chose Boeing (CST-100) and SpaceX (Crew Dragon) as the two companies that will be funded to develop systems to transport U.S. government crews to and from the International Space Station. Boeing won a $4.2 billion contract to complete and certify CST-100 spacecraft by 2017, while SpaceX won a $2.6 billion contract to complete and certify their crewed Dragon spacecraft. The contracts include at least one crewed flight test with at least one NASA astronaut aboard. Once the Starliner achieves NASA certification, the contract requires Boeing to conduct at least two, and as many as six, crewed missions to the space station.[37] NASA's William H. Gerstenmaier considers the CST-100 proposal as stronger than the two others.[38]

Part of the agreement with NASA allows Boeing to sell seats for space tourists. Boeing proposed including one seat per flight for a space flight participant at a price that would be competitive with what Roscosmos charges tourists.[39]

On 4 September 2015, Boeing announced that the CST-100 would officially be called the CST-100 Starliner, a name that follows the conventions of the 787 Dreamliner produced by Boeing Commercial Airplanes.[40] In November 2015, NASA announced it had dropped Boeing from consideration in the multibillion-dollar Commercial Resupply Services second-phase competition to fly cargo to the International Space Station.[41]

In May 2016, Boeing delayed its first scheduled CST-100 launch from 2017 to early 2018.[42][43] Then in October 2016, Boeing delayed its program by six months, from early 2018 to late 2018, following supplier holdups and a production problem on the second CST-100. By 2016, they were hoping to fly NASA astronauts to the ISS by December 2018.[42][44]

In April 2018, NASA suggested the first planned two-person flight of the CST-100 Starliner, slated for November 2018, was now likely to occur in 2019 or 2020. If the delays are maintained it would be expected to carry one additional crew member and extra supplies. Instead of staying for two weeks as originally planned, NASA said the expanded crew could stay at the station for as long as six months as a normal rotational flight.[45]

Testing
Test of Starliner's airbags in April 2012.
Starliner pad abort test in November 2019.

A variety of validation tests have been underway on test articles since 2011.

In September 2011, Boeing announced the completion of a set of ground drop tests to validate the design of the airbag cushioning system. The airbags are located underneath the heat shield of the CST-100, which is designed to be separated from the capsule while under parachute descent at about 5,000 feet (1,500 m) altitude. The airbags are deployed by filling with a mixture of compressed nitrogen and oxygen gas, not with the pyro-explosive mixture sometimes used in automotive airbags. The tests were carried out in the Mojave Desert of southeast California, at ground speeds between 10 and 30 miles per hour (16 and 48 km/h) in order to simulate crosswind conditions at the time of landing. Bigelow Aerospace built the mobile test rig and conducted the tests.[30]

In April 2012, Boeing dropped a mock-up of its CST-100 commercial crew capsule over the Nevada desert at the Delamar Dry Lake near Alamo, Nevada, successfully testing the craft's three main landing parachutes from 11,000 feet (3,400 m).[46]

In August 2013, Boeing announced that two NASA astronauts evaluated communications, ergonomics, and crew-interface aspects of the CST-100, showing how future astronauts will operate in the spacecraft as it transports them to the International Space Station and other low Earth orbit destinations.[47]

Boeing reported in May 2016 that its test schedule would slip by eight months in order to reduce the mass of the spacecraft and aerodynamics issues anticipated during launch and ascent on the Atlas V rocket.[48] The Orbital Flight Test is scheduled for spring 2019. The booster for this Orbital Flight Test, an Atlas V N22 rocket, is being assembled at ULA's facility at Decatur, Alabama.[49] The first crewed flight (Boe-CFT) is scheduled for summer 2019, depending on test results from Boe-OFT. It is planned to last 14 days and carry one NASA astronaut and one Boeing test pilot to the ISS.[50] On 5 April 2018, NASA announced that the first planned two-person flight, originally slated for November 2018, is likely to occur in 2019 or 2020. If this delay occurs the mission could be expected to carry one additional crew member and supplies. NASA said the expanded crew could stay at the station for as long as six months as a normal rotational flight. This is due to the ending of the agreement for Russia to ferry astronauts to and from the International Space Station in late 2019.[51] NASA has named its first Commercial Crew astronaut cadre of four veteran astronauts to work with SpaceX and Boeing: Robert Behnken, Eric Boe, Sunita Williams, and Douglas Hurley.[52] In July 2018, Boeing announced the assignment of former NASA astronaut Christopher Ferguson to the Boe-CFT mission.

In July 2018, a test anomaly was reported in which there was a hypergolic propellant leak due to several faulty abort system valves. Consequentially the first unpiloted orbital mission was delayed to April 2019, and the first crew launch rescheduled to August 2019.[53][54] In March 2019, Reuters reported these test flights had been delayed by at least three months,[55] and in April 2019 Boeing announced that the unpiloted orbital mission was scheduled for August 2019.[56]

In May 2019, all major hot-fire, including simulations of low-altitude abort thruster testing, was completed using a full up to service module test article that was "flight-like", meaning that the service module test rig used in the recent hot-fire testing included fuel and helium tanks, reaction control system, orbital maneuvering, and attitude control thrusters, launch abort engines and all necessary fuel lines and avionics that the ones that will be used for crewed missions will have. This clears the way for the pad abort test and the subsequent uncrewed and crewed flights later.[57] A pad abort test took place on 4 November 2019.[58] The capsule accelerated away from its pad, but then one of the three parachutes failed to deploy and the capsule landed with only two parachutes.[59][60] Landing was however deemed safe, and the test a success. Boeing did not expect the malfunction of one parachute to affect the Starliner development schedule.[61]

First orbital flight test
Main article: Boeing Orbital Flight Test
The Starliner landed at White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico following OFT in December 2019.

The orbital flight test launched on 20 December 2019, but after deployment, an 11-hour offset in the mission clock of Starliner caused the spacecraft to compute that "it was in an orbital insertion burn", when it was not. This caused the attitude control thrusters to consume more fuel than planned, precluding a docking with the International Space Station.[17][18] The spacecraft landed at White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico, two days after launch.[62] After the successful landing, the spacecraft was named Calypso (after the research vessel RV Calypso for the oceanographic researcher Jacques-Yves Cousteau) by the commander of the USCV-2 mission, NASA astronaut Sunita Williams.[63]

Two software errors detected during the test, one of which prevented a planned docking with the International Space Station, could each have led to the destruction of the spacecraft had they not been caught and corrected in time, NASA said on 7 February 2020. A joint NASA-Boeing investigation team "found the two critical software defects were not detected ahead of flight despite multiple safeguards", according to an agency statement. "Ground intervention prevented the loss of the vehicle in both cases". Before re-entry, engineers discovered the second critical software error that affected the thruster firings needed to safely jettison the Starliner's service module. The service module software error "incorrectly translated" the jettison thruster firing sequence.[64]

Second orbital flight test
Main article: Boeing Orbital Flight Test 2

Boeing officials said on 6 April 2020, that the Starliner crew capsule will fly a second time without astronauts after software problems and other issues plagued a first test flight on 20 December 2019, preventing the ship from reaching the International Space Station. Boeing confirmed that it will fly a second uncrewed demonstration mission — an Orbital Flight Test — before astronauts ride a Starliner into orbit in 2021. NASA said it accepted a recommendation from Boeing to fly a second unpiloted mission. The Washington Post reported the second Orbital Flight Test, with much the same objectives as the first, is expected to launch from Cape Canaveral "sometime in October or November 2020". Boeing said it would fund the unplanned crew capsule test flight "at no cost to the taxpayer". Boeing told investors earlier this year it was taking a $410 million charge against its earnings to cover the expected costs of a second unpiloted test flight.[65]

List of spacecraft

As of January 2020, Boeing plans to have three Boeing Starliner spacecraft in service to fulfill the needs of the Commercial Crew Program with each spacecraft expected to be capable of being reused up to ten times with a six-month refurbishment time.[66][67] As of May 2020, Boeing plans to have two Boeing Starliner spacecraft in service.

Image Designation Name Status Flights Time in flight Notes Cat.
Spacecraft 1 None Retired 1 1m, 19s Vehicle used in the Boeing Pad Abort Test.[68][69][70]
Spacecraft 2 None Active 0 None Was first Starliner planned to carry crew, now to be used on OFT-2.[70]
Spacecraft 3 Calypso Active 1 2d, 1h, 22m, 10s Named after Jacques Cousteau's research vessel Calypso.[69] First Starliner to fly in space.[69][70]
  Test article   Spaceflight vehicle

List of flights

List includes only completed or currently manifested missions. Launch dates are listed in UTC.

Mission Vehicle Launch date

(UTC)

 Crew Remarks Duration Outcome
Boe-PAT Spacecraft 1 4 November 2019, 14:15:00 N/A Pad abort test, White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico. One of three parachutes failed to open due to being rigged incorrectly before launch, but parachute system functioned adequately.[61] 95 seconds Success
Boe-OFT Calypso 20 December 2019, 11:36:43 N/A First uncrewed orbital test flight of Starliner. The mission's main objective of ISS rendezvous was aborted due to software incorrectly keeping mission time, leading to a late orbital insertion burn with excessive fuel expenditure. Starliner landed in New Mexico two days after launch.[71][72][73][62] 2 days Partial failure
Boe-OFT 2 Spacecraft 2 Mid-November 2020 [74] N/A Second uncrewed orbital test flight of Starliner added due to partial failure of previous test flight. Will attempt to dock with the ISS.[75] 8 days Planned
Boe-CFT Unknown April 2021 [74] Christopher Ferguson
Mike Fincke
Nicole Mann		 First crewed test flight of Boeing Starliner. Planned
Starliner-1[5] Calypso NET 2021[76] Sunita Williams
Josh Cassada
TBA
TBA		 First operational flight of Boeing Starliner. This will be a reflight of the OFT vehicle which was christened Calypso by mission commander Williams upon its return to earth.[77] Planned
Starliner-2 to Starliner-6 Multiple NET 2022-2026 TBA
TBA
TBA
TBA		 Following Starliner-1, NASA has contracted Boeing for at least five more operational flights to the ISS[78]. Planned

Crew
The CST-100 Starliner mockup and the astronauts initially selected for the first two missions, from left to right: Sunita Williams, Josh Cassada, Eric Boe, Nicole Mann, and Christopher Ferguson.

On 3 August 2018, NASA announced the astronauts who will participate in the first Starliner flights.[79][80] Eric Boe was one of those initially selected, but was replaced by Michael Fincke in January 2019 due to "personal medical reasons".[81]

Technology partners

See also

References
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