Latin conjugation

First conjugation

The first conjugation is characterized by the vowel ā and can be recognized by the -āre ending of the present active infinitive form. The principal parts usually adhere to one of the following patterns:

• perfect has the suffix –āvī. The majority of first-conjugation verbs adhere to this pattern, which is considered to be "regular", for example:
  • portō, portāre, portāvī, portātum, "to carry, to bring";
  • amō, amāre, amāvī, amātum, "to love, to be fond of";
• perfect has the suffix –uī, for example:
  • secō, secāre, secuī, sectum, "to cut, to divide";
  • fricō, fricāre, fricuī, frictum, "to rub";
  • vetō, vetāre, vetuī, vetitum, "to forbid, to prohibit";
• perfect has the suffix –ī and vowel lengthening in the stem, for example:
  • lavō, lavāre, lāvī, lautum, "to wash, to bathe";
  • iuvō, iuvāre, iūvī, iūtum, "to help, to assist";
• perfect is reduplicated, for example:
  • stō, stāre, stetī, statum, "to stand";
  • dō, dare, dedī, datum, "to give"; this verb is irregular, since except in the 2nd singular (dā, dās) the a is short (dăre, dătum, dăbō etc.)

Deponent verbs in this conjugation all follow the pattern below, which is the passive of the first type above:^[6]

• arbitror, arbitrārī, arbitrātus sum (to think)
• cōnor, cōnārī, cōnātus sum (to try)
• cūnctor, cūnctāri, cūnctātus sum (to hesitate)

Second conjugation

The second conjugation is characterized by the vowel ē, and can be recognized by the -eō ending of the first person present indicative and the -ēre ending of the present active infinitive form. The principal parts usually adhere to one of the following patterns:

• perfect has the suffix –uī. Verbs which adhere to this pattern are considered to be "regular". Examples:
  • terreō, terrēre, terruī, territum (to frighten, to deter)
  • doceō, docēre, docuī, doctum (to teach, to instruct)
  • teneō, tenēre, tenuī, tentum (to hold, to keep)
• perfect has the suffix –ēvī. Examples:
  • dēleō, dēlēre, dēlēvī, dēlētum (to destroy, to efface)
  • cieō, ciēre, cīvī, citum (to arouse, to stir)
• perfect has the suffix –sī (which combines with a preceding c or g to –xī). Examples:
  • augeō, augēre, auxī, auctum (to increase, to enlarge)
  • iubeō, iubēre, iussī, iussum (to order, to bid)
• perfect is reduplicated with –ī. Examples:
  • mordeō, mordēre, momordī, morsum (to bite, to nip)
  • spondeō, spondēre, spopondī, spōnsum (to vow, to promise)
• perfect has suffix –ī and vowel lengthening in the stem. Examples:
  • videō, vidēre, vīdī, vīsum (to see, to notice)
  • foveō, fovēre, fōvī, fōtum (to caress, to cherish)
• perfect has suffix –ī and no perfect passive participle. Examples:
  • strīdeō, strīdēre, strīdī (to hiss, to creak)
  • ferveō, fervēre, fervī (sometimes fervuī or ferbuī) (to boil, to seethe)

Deponent verbs in this conjugation are few. They mostly go like the passive of terreō, but fateor and confiteor have a perfect participle with ss:^[7]

• mereor, merērī, meritus sum (to deserve)
• polliceor, pollicērī, pollicitus sum (to promise)
• fateor, fatērī, fassus sum (to confess)

Third conjugation

The third conjugation is characterized by a short thematic vowel, which alternates between e, i, and u in different environments. Verbs of this conjugation end in –ere in the present active infinitive. There is no regular rule for constructing the perfect stem of third-conjugation verbs, but the following patterns are used:

• perfect has suffix –sī (–xī when c or h comes at the end of the root). Examples:
  • carpō, carpere, carpsī, carptum (to pluck, to select)
  • trahō, trahere, trāxī, trāctum (to drag, to draw)
  • gerō, gerere, gessī, gestum (to wear, to bear)
  • flectō, flectere, flexī, flexum (to bend, to twist)
• perfect is reduplicated with suffix –ī. Examples:
  • currō, currere, cucurrī, cursum (to run, to race)
  • caedō, caedere, cecīdī, caesum (to kill, to slay)
  • tangō, tangere, tetigī, tāctum (to touch, to hit)
  • pellō, pellere, pepulī, pulsum (to beat, to drive away)
• perfect has suffix -vī. Examples:
  • petō, petere, petīvī, petītum (to seek, to attack)
  • linō, linere, līvī, lītum (to smear, to befoul)
  • serō, serere, sēvī, satum (to sow, to plant)
  • terō, terere, trīvī, trītum (to rub, to wear out)
  • sternō, sternere, strāvī, strātus (to spread, to stretch out)
• perfect has suffix –ī and vowel lengthening in the stem. Examples:
  • agō, agere, ēgī, āctum (to do, to drive)
  • legō, legere, lēgī, lēctum (to collect, to read)
  • emō, emere, ēmī, ēmptum (to buy, to purchase)
  • vincō, vincere, vīcī, victum (to conquer, to master)
  • fundō, fundere, fūdī, fūsum (to pour, to utter)
• perfect has suffix –ī only. Examples:
  • īcō, īcere, īcī, īctum (to strike, to smite)
  • vertō, vertere, vertī, versum (to turn, to alter)
  • vīsō, vīsere, vīsī, vīsum (to visit)
• perfect has suffix –uī. Examples:
  • metō, metere, messuī, messum (to reap, to harvest)
  • vomō, vomere, vomuī, vomitum (to vomit)
  • colō, colere, coluī, cultum (to cultivate, to till)
  • texō, texere, texuī, textum (to weave, to plait)
  • gignō, gignere, genuī, genitum (to beget, to cause)
• Present tense indicative first person singular form has suffix with –scō. Examples:
  • nōscō, nōscere, nōvī, nōtum (to get to know, to learn)
  • adolēscō, adolēscere, adolēvī (to grow up, to mature)
  • flōrēscō, flōrēscere, flōruī (to begin to flourish, to blossom)
  • haerēscō, haerēscere, haesī, haesum (to adhere, to stick)
  • pāscō, pāscere, pāvī, pāstum (to feed upon, to feed (an animal))

Deponent verbs in the 3rd conjugation include the following:

• lābor, lābī, lāpsus sum (to glide)
• loquor, loquī, locūtus sum (to speak)
• oblīvīscor, oblīvīscī, oblītus sum (to forget)
• sequor, sequī, secūtus sum (to follow)
• ūtor, ūtī, ūsus sum (to use)

Third conjugation –iō verbs

Intermediate between the third and fourth conjugation are the third-conjugation verbs with suffix –iō. These resemble the fourth conjugation in some forms. Some examples are:

• capiō, capere, cēpī, captum (to take, capture)
• faciō, facere, fēcī, factum (to do, to make)
• rapiō, rapere, rapuī, raptum (to plunder, seize)
• cupiō, cupere, cupīvī, cupītum (to desire, long for)

Deponent verbs in this group include:

• morior, morī, mortuus sum (to die)
• patior, patī, passus sum (to suffer, to allow)
• aggredior, aggredī, aggressus sum (to attack)

They resemble the fourth conjugation in the following parts of the verb:

Present indicative (first person singular, third person plural): capiō, capiunt.

Indicative imperfect: capiēbam, capiēbāmus.

Indicative future: capiam, capiēmus.

Subjunctive present: capiam, capiāmus

Imperative future (third person plural): capiuntō

Present Active Participle: capiēns, -entis

Gerund: capiendī, capiendum (also capiundī)

Gerundive: capiendus, –a, –um (also capiundus)

Fourth conjugation

The fourth conjugation is characterized by the vowel ī and can be recognized by the –īre ending of the present active infinitive. Principal parts of verbs in the fourth conjugation generally adhere to the following patterns:

• perfect has suffix –vī. Verbs which adhere to this pattern are considered to be "regular". Examples:
  • audiō, audīre, audīvī, audītum (to hear, listen (to))
  • mūniō, mūnīre, mūnīvī, mūnītum (to fortify, to build)
• perfect has suffix –uī. Examples:
  • aperiō, aperīre, aperuī, apertum (to open, to uncover)
• perfect has suffix –sī (-xī when c comes at the end of the root). Examples:
  • saepiō, saepīre, saepsī, saeptum (to surround, to enclose)
  • sanciō, sancīre, sānxī, sānctum (to confirm, to ratify)
  • sentiō, sentīre, sēnsī, sēnsum (to feel, to perceive)
• perfect has suffix –ī and vowel lengthening in the stem. Examples:
  • veniō, venīre, vēnī, ventum (to come, to arrive)

Deponent verbs in the 4th conjugation include the following:^[8]

• assentior, assentīrī, assēnsus sum (to assent)
• largior, largīrī, largītus sum (to bestow)
• mentior, mentīrī, mentītus sum (to tell a lie)
• mētior, mētīrī, mēnsus sum (to measure)
• sortior, sortīrī, sortītus sum (to cast lots)

The verb orior, orīrī, ortus sum (to arise) is also regarded as 4th conjugation, although some parts, such as the 3rd singular present tense oritur and imperfect subjunctive orerer, have a short vowel like the 3rd conjugation. But its compound adorior (to rise up, attack) is entirely 4th conjugation.

Present tense

The present tense (Latin tempus praesēns) is used to show an uncompleted action that happens in the current time. The present tense does not have a tense sign. Instead, the personal endings are added to the bare present stem. However, in this tense the thematic vowel, most notably the ě in the third conjugation, changes the most frequently.

Imperfect

The imperfect (Latin tempus praeteritum imperfectum) indicates a perpetual, but incomplete action in the past. It is recognized by the tense signs bă and bā in the indicative, and re and rē in the subjunctive.

Future tense

The future tense (Latin tempus futūrum simplex) expresses an uncompleted action in the future. It is recognized by its tense signs bō, bi, bu, a and ē in the indicative and the vowel ō in the imperative mood.

Perfect

The perfect (Latin tempus praeteritum perfectum) refers to an action completed in the past. Tense signs are only used in this tense with the indicative. The tense signs of the subjunctive are eri and erī.

Pluperfect

The pluperfect (Latin tempus praeteritum plūsquamperfectum) expresses an action which was completed before another completed action. It is recognized by the tense signs era and erā in the indicative and isse and issē in the subjunctive.

Future perfect

Probably the least used of all the tenses, the future perfect (Latin tempus futūrum exāctum) conveys an action that will have been completed before another action. It is signified by the tense signs erō and eri. The future perfect is the only tense that occurs in a single mood.

Participles

There are four participles: present active, perfect passive, future passive, and future active.

• The present active participle is declined like a third declension adjective with one ending.
  • In the first and second conjugations, the present active is formed by taking the present stem and adding an –ns. The genitive singular form adds an –ntis, and the thematicals ā and ē are shortened.
  • In the third conjugation, the e of the present stem is lengthened. In the genitive, the ē is short again.
  • In the fourth conjugation, the ī is shortened, and an ē is placed. Of course, this ē is short in the genitive.
  • Puer portāns translates into "carrying boy."
• The perfect passive participle is declined like a first and second declension adjective.
  • In all conjugations, the perfect participle is formed by removing the –um from the supine, and adding a –us (masculine nominative singular).
  • Puer portātus translates into "carried boy."
• The future active participle is declined like a first and second declension adjective.
  • In all conjugations the –um is removed from the supine, and an –ūrus (masculine nominative singular) is added.
  • Puer portātūrus translates into "boy going to carry," or "boy who is going to carry."
• The future passive participle is formed by taking the present stem, adding "-nd-", and then the adjective ending "-us, -a, -um". Thus "laudare" forms "laudandus".
  • The literal translation is "about to be praised", but this often extends a sense of obligation, thus "must be praised". Thus the "future passive participle" is often cross-listed as the "gerundive" (see below).

Infinitives

There are six infinitives. They are in the present active, present passive, perfect active, perfect passive, future active and future passive.

• The present active infinitive is the second principal part (in regular verbs). It plays an important role in the syntactic construction of Accusativus cum infinitivo, for instance.
  • Portāre means, "to carry."
• The present passive infinitive is formed by adding a –rī to the present stem. This is only so for the first, second and fourth conjugations. In the third conjugation, the thematical vowel, e, is taken from the present stem, and an –ī is added.
  • Portārī translates into "to be carried."
• The perfect active infinitive is formed by adding an –isse onto the perfect stem.
  • Portāvisse translates into "to have carried."
• The perfect passive infinitive uses the perfect passive participle along with the auxiliary verb esse. The perfect passive infinitive must agree with what it is describing in number and gender.
  • Portātus esse means, "to have been carried."
• The future active infinitive uses the future active participle with the auxiliary verb esse.
  • Portātūrus esse means, "to be going to carry." The future active infinitive must agree with what it is describing in number and gender.
  • Esse has two future infinitives: futurus esse and fore (fore is mostly used in a substitute expression for the Future Passive Infinitive)
• The future passive infinitive uses the supine with the auxiliary verb īrī.
  • Portātum īrī is translated as "to be going to be carried." This is normally used in indirect speech. For example: Omnēs senātōres dīxērunt templum conditum īrī. "All of the senators said that a temple would be built."

The Future Passive Infinitive was actually not very commonly used (Wheelock's Latin mentions it exists but makes it a point to avoid using it in any practice examples). In practice, the Romans themselves often used an alternate expression, "fore ut" followed by a subjunctive clause.

Supine

The supine is the fourth principal part of the verb, as given in Latin dictionaries. It resembles a masculine noun of the fourth declension. Supines only occur in the accusative and ablative cases.

• The accusative form ends in a –um, and is used with a verb of motion in order to show purpose. Thus it is only used with verbs like īre "to go", venīre "to come", etc. The accusative form of a supine can also take an object if needed.
  • Pater vēnit portātum līberōs suōs. – The father came to carry his children.
• The ablative, which ends in a –ū, is used with the Ablative of Specification.
  • Arma haec facillima portātū erant. – These arms were the easiest to carry.

Gerund

The gerund is formed similarly to the present active participle. However, the –ns becomes an –ndus, and the preceding ā or ē is shortened. Gerunds are neuter nouns of the second declension, but the nominative case is not present. The gerund is a noun, meaning "the act of doing (the verb)", and forms a suppletive paradigm to the infinitive, which cannot be declined. For example, the genitive form portandī can mean "of carrying", the dative form portandō can mean "to carrying", the accusative form portandum can mean "carrying", and the ablative form portandō can mean "by carrying", "in respect to carrying", etc.

One common use of the gerund is with the preposition ad to indicate purpose. For example, paratus ad oppugnandum could be translated as "ready to attack". However the gerund was avoided when an object was introduced, and a passive construction with the gerundive was preferred. For example, for "ready to attack the enemy" the construction paratus ad hostes oppugnandos is preferred over paratus ad hostes oppugnandum.^[13]

Gerundive

The gerundive has a form similar to that of the gerund, but it is a first and second declension adjective, and functions as a future passive participle (see § Participles above). It means "(which is) to be ...ed". Often, the gerundive is used with an implicit esse, to show obligation.

• Puer portandus "The boy to be carried"
• Oratio laudanda est means "The speech is to be praised". In such constructions a substantive in dative may be used to identify the agent of the obligation (dativus auctoris), as in Oratio nobis laudanda est meaning "The speech is to be praised by us" or "We must praise the speech".

For some examples of uses of Latin gerundives, see the Gerundive article.

Active

The first periphrastic conjugation uses the future participle. It is combined with the forms of esse. It is translated as "I am going to carry," "I was going to carry", etc.

Passive

The second periphrastic conjugation uses the gerundive. It is combined with the forms of esse and expresses necessity. It is translated as "I am to be carried," "I was to be carried", etc., or as "I have to (must) be carried," "I had to be carried," etc.

Irregular verbs

There are a few irregular verbs in Latin that are not grouped into a particular conjugation (such as esse and posse), or deviate slightly from a conjugation (such as ferre, īre, and dare). It consists of the following list and their compounds (such as conferre). Many irregular verbs lack a fourth principal part.

sum, esse, fuī, futūrum – to be, exist

possum, posse, potuī – to be able, can

eō, īre, īvī / īī, ītum – to go

volō, velle, voluī – to wish, want

nōlō, nōlle, nōluī – not to want, refuse

mālō, mālle, māluī – to prefer

ferō, ferre, tulī, lātum – to bear, endure, carry, bring

fīō, fierī, factus sum – to become, happen, be made

edō, ēsse, ēdī, ēsum – to eat, waste

dō, dare, dedī, datum – to give, bestow

Of these, esse, ferre, and fierī are suppletive, that is, their deviating third and fourth principal parts reflect what was an entirely different verb historically (in Proto-Indo-European).

The various parts of these verbs go as follows:

• The verb sum "I am":

Present: sum, es, est, sumus, estis, sunt "I am"

Future: erō, eris, erit, erimus, eritis, erunt "I will be"

Imperfect: eram, erās, erat, erāmus, erātis, erant "I was"

Present subjunctive: sim, sīs, sit, sīmus, sītis, sint "I may be, I would be, I am"

Imperfect subjunctive: essem, essēs, esset, essēmus, essētis, essent "I would be, I should be, I was"

Perfect: fuī, -istī, -it... "I was", "I have been"

Infinitive esse "to be"

• Possum "I am able":

Present: possum, potes, potest, possumus, potestis, possunt "I am able"

Future: poterō, poteris, poterit...

Imperfect: poteram, poterās, poterat...

Present subjunctive: possim, possīs, possit, possīmus, possītis, possint

Imperfect subjunctive: possem, possēs, posset, possēmus, possētis, possent

Perfect: potuī, -istī, -it...

Infinitive: posse "to be able"

• Eō "I go" goes as follows:

Present: eō, īs, it, īmus, ītis, eunt "I go"

Future: ībō, ībis, ībit...

Imperfect: ībam, ībās, ībat...

Present subjunctive: eam, eās, eat...

Imperfect subjunctive: īrem, īrēs, īret...

Infinitive: īre "to go"

Imperative: ī! (pl. īte!)

Present participle: iēns (pl. euntēs)

Abeō "I go away", adeō "I go up to", redeō "I go back" etc. have similar endings.

• Volō "I want" is an irregular 3rd conjugation verb:

Present: volō, vīs, vult, volumus, vultis, volunt "I want"

Future: volam, -ēs, -et...

Imperfect: volēbam...

Present subjunctive: velim, -īs, -it...

Imperfect subjunctive: vellem, -ēs, -et...

Infinitive: velle "to want"

• Nōlō "I am unwilling"

Present: nōlō, nōn vīs, nõn vult, nōlumus, nōn vultis, nōlunt "I don't want, I am unwilling"

Infinitive: nōlle "to be unwilling"

Other forms are similar to volō above.

• Mālō "I prefer"

Present: mālō, māvīs, māvult, mālumus, māvultis, mālunt "I prefer"

Infinitive: mālle "to prefer"

• Dō "I give" is like the 1st conjugation, but has certain forms with a short "a":

Present: dō, dās, dat, damus, datis, dant "I give"

Future: dabō...

Imperfect: dabam...

Present subjunctive: dem, dēs, det...

Imperfect subjunctive: darem, darēs, daret...

Perfect: dedī

Infinitive: dare "to give"

• Ferō "I bring" or "I bear" is like 3rd conjugation verbs, but has certain forms where the short "i" or "e" is omitted. The Perfect tulī "I brought", and the Perfect passive latus sum "I was brought" are also irregular:

Present: ferō, fers, fert, ferimus, fertis, ferunt "I bring"

Imperfect subjunctive: ferrem... "I would bring, I should bring, I was bringing"

Perfect: tulī "I brought"

Infinitive: ferre "to bring"

Imperative: fer! (pl. ferte!) "bring!"

Present participle: ferēns (pl. ferentēs) "bringing"

• Fīō "I happen," "I am done," or "I become," is used instead of the passive form of faciō "I make."

Present: fīō, fīs, fit, fīmus, fītis, fīunt

Future: fīam, fīēs, fīet...

Imperfect: fiēbam...

Present Subjunctive: fīam, fīās, fīat...

Imperfect Subjunctive: fierem, fierēs, fieret...

Infinitive: fierī "to happen"

Imperative: fī (pl. fīte)

The perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect forms use facts sum and conjugate regularly, e.g. factus erat "it has become" and factī erimus "we will have become."^[14]

Deponent and semi-deponent verbs

Deponent verbs are verbs that are passive in form (that is, conjugated as though in the passive voice) but active in meaning. These verbs have only three principal parts, since the perfect of ordinary passives is formed periphrastically with the perfect participle, which is formed on the same stem as the supine. Some examples coming from all conjugations are:

1st conjugation: mīror, mīrārī, mīrātus sum – to admire, wonder

2nd conjugation: polliceor, pollicērī, pollicitus sum – to promise, offer

3rd conjugation: loquor, loquī, locūtus sum – to speak, say

4th conjugation: mentior, mentīrī, mentītus sum – to tell a lie

Deponent verbs use active conjugations for tenses that do not exist in the passive: the gerund, the supine, the present and future participles and the future infinitive. They cannot be used in the passive themselves (except the gerundive), and their analogues with "active" form do not in fact exist: one cannot directly translate "The word is said" with any form of loquī, and there are no forms like loquō, loquis, loquit, etc.

Semi-deponent verbs form their imperfective aspect tenses in the manner of ordinary active verbs; but their perfect tenses are built periphrastically like deponents and ordinary passives; thus, semi-deponent verbs have a perfect active participle instead of a perfect passive participle. An example:

audeō, audēre, ausus sum – to dare, venture

Unlike the proper passive of active verbs, which is always intransitive, some deponent verbs are transitive, which means that they can take an object. For example:

Eo die quo consueverat intervallo hostes sequitur. – That day he follows the enemy at his usual distance.

Note: In the Romance languages, which lack deponent or passive verb forms, the Classical Latin deponent verbs either disappeared (being replaced with non-deponent verbs of a similar meaning) or changed to a non-deponent form. For example, in Spanish and Italian, mīrārī changed to mirar(e) by changing all the verb forms to the previously nonexistent "active form", and audeō changed to osar(e) by taking the participle ausus and making an -ar(e) verb out of it (note that au went to o).

Defective verbs

Defective verbs are verbs that are conjugated in only some instances.

• Some verbs are conjugated only in the perfective aspect's tenses, yet have the imperfective aspect's tenses' meanings. As such, the perfect becomes the present, the pluperfect becomes the imperfect, and the future perfect becomes the future. Therefore, the defective verb ōdī means, "I hate." These defective verbs' principal parts are given in vocabulary with the indicative perfect in the first person and the perfect active infinitive. Some examples are:

ōdī, ōdisse – to hate

meminī, meminisse – to remember

coepī, coepisse – to have begun

• A few verbs, the meanings of which usually have to do with speech, appear only in certain occurrences.

Cedo (plur. cette), which means "Hand it over" or "Out with it" is only in the imperative mood, and only is used in the second person.

The following are conjugated irregularly:

Impersonal verbs

Impersonal verbs are those lacking a person. In English impersonal verbs are usually used with the neuter pronoun "it" (as in "It seems," or "It storms"). Latin uses the third person singular. These verbs lack a fourth principal part. A few examples are:

pluit, pluere, pluvit – to rain (it rains)

ningit, ningere, ninxit – to snow (it snows)

oportet, oportēre, oportuit – to be proper (it is proper, one should/ought to)

licet, licēre, licuit – to be permitted [to] (it is allowed [to])

The third person forms of esse may also be seen as impersonal when seen from the perspective of English:

Nox aestīva calida fuit. – It was a hot, summer night.

Est eī quī terram colunt. – It is they who till the land.

Irregular future active participles

As stated, the future active participle is normally formed by removing the –um from the supine, and adding a –ūrus. However, some deviations occur.

Alternative verb forms

Several verb forms may occur in alternative forms (in some authors these forms are fairly common, if not more common than the canonical ones):

• The ending –ris in the passive voice may be –re as in:

portābāris → portābāre

• The ending –ērunt in the perfect may be –ēre (primarily in poetry) as in:

portāvērunt → portāvēre

• The ending –ī in the passive infinitive may be –ier as in:

portārī → portārier, dicī → dicier

Syncopated verb forms

Like in most Romance languages, syncopated forms and contractions are present in Latin. They may occur in the following instances:

• Perfect stems that end in a –v may be contracted when inflected.

portāvisse → portāsse

portāvistī → portāstī

portāverant → portārant

portāvisset → portāsset

• The compounds of noscere (to learn) and movēre (to move, dislodge) can also be contracted.

nōvistī → nōstī

nōvistis → nōstis

commōveram → commōram

commōverās → commōrās

The four conjugations in the finite forms