Great Famine of 1876–78

Map of the British Indian Empire (1880), showing the different provinces and native states, including those affected by the Great Famine of 1876–78

The Great Famine of 1876–78 (also the Southern India famine of 1876–78 or the Madras famine of 1877) was a famine in India under the British Raj. It began in 1876 after an intense drought resulting in crop failure in the Deccan Plateau.^[1] It affected south and southwestern India (Madras, Mysore, Hyderabad, and Bombay) for a period of two years. In its second year famine also spread north to some regions of the Central Provinces and the North-Western Provinces, and to a small area in the Punjab.^[2] The famine ultimately covered an area of 670,000 square kilometres (257,000 sq mi) and caused distress to a population totaling 58,500,000.^[2] The death toll from this famine is estimated to be in the range of 5.5 million people.^[3] British economic policies played a substantial role in exporting grain out of India and otherwise exacerbating the famine's mortality.

In his acclaimed book Late Victorian Holocausts, Mike Davis called the famine a "colonial genocide" perpetrated by Great Britain. Some, including Niall Ferguson, dispute this judgment, while others, including Adam Jones, affirm it.^[4][5]

Preceding events

Grain destined for export stacked in Madras beaches (February 1877)

In part, the Great Famine may have been caused by an intense drought resulting in crop failure in the Deccan Plateau.^[1] But, the regular export of grain by the colonial government; during the famine the viceroy, Lord Lytton, oversaw the export to England of a record 6.4 million hundredweight (320,000 ton) of wheat, made the region more vulnerable. However, the cultivation of alternate cash crops, in addition to the commodification of grain, played a significant role in the events.^[6][7]

The famine occurred at a time when the colonial government was attempting to reduce expenses on welfare. Earlier, in the Bihar famine of 1873–74, severe mortality had been avoided by importing rice from Burma. However, the Government of Bengal and its Lieutenant-Governor, Sir Richard Temple, were criticized for excessive expenditure on charitable relief.^[8] Sensitive to any renewed accusations of excess in 1876, Temple, who was now Famine Commissioner for the Government of India,^[2] insisted not only on a policy of laissez faire with respect to the trade in grain,^[9] but also on stricter standards of qualification for relief and on more meager relief rations.^[2] Two kinds of relief were offered: "relief works" for able-bodied men, women, and working children, and gratuitous (or charitable) relief for small children, the elderly, and the indigent.^[10]

Famine and relief

Engraving from The Graphic, October 1877, showing two forsaken children in the Bellary district of the Madras Presidency.

Engraving from The Graphic, October 1877, showing the plight of animals as well as humans in Bellary district.

People waiting for famine relief in Bangalore. From the Illustrated London News (20 October 1877)

A contemporary print showing the distribution of relief in Bellary, Madras Presidency. From the Illustrated London News (1877)

Famine stricken people during the famine of 1876-78 in Bangalore

The insistence on more rigorous tests for qualification, however, led to strikes by "relief workers" in the Bombay presidency.^[2] Furthermore, in January 1877, Temple reduced the wage for a day's hard work in the relief camps in Madras and Bombay^[11]—this 'Temple wage' consisted of 450 grams (1 lb) of grain plus one anna for a man, and a slightly reduced amount for a woman or working child,^[12] for a "long day of hard labour without shade or rest."^[13] The rationale behind the reduced wage, which was in keeping with a prevailing belief of the time, was that any excessive payment might create 'dependency' (or "demoralization" in contemporaneous usage) among the famine-afflicted population.^[11]

Temple's recommendations were opposed by a number of officials, including William Digby and the physician W. R. Cornish, Sanitary Commissioner for the Madras Presidency.^[14] Cornish argued for a minimum of 680 grams (1.5 lb) of grain and, in addition, supplements of vegetables and protein, especially if the individuals were performing strenuous labor in the relief works.^[14] However, Lytton supported Temple, who argued that "everything must be subordinated to the financial consideration of disbursing the smallest sum of money."^[15]

Eventually, in March 1877, the provincial government of Madras, increased the ration halfway towards Cornish's recommendations, to 570 grams (1.25 lb) of grain and 43 grams (1.5 oz) of protein in the form of daal (pulses).^[14] Meanwhile, many more people had succumbed to the famine.^[16] In other parts of India, such as the United Provinces, where relief was meager, the resulting mortality was high.^[16] In the autumn and winter of 1878, an epidemic of malaria killed many more who were already weakened by malnutrition.^[16]

By early 1877, Temple proclaimed that he had put "the famine under control." Digby noted that "a famine can scarcely be said to be adequately controlled which leaves one-fourth of the people dead."^[15]

All in all, the Government of India spent Rs. 8 1/30 million in relieving 700 million units (1 unit = relief for 1 person for 1 day) in British India and, in addition, another Rs. 7.2 million in relieving 72 million units in the princely states of Mysore and Hyderabad.^[16] Revenue (tax) payments to the amount of Rs. 6 million were either not enforced or postponed until the following year, and charitable donations from Great Britain and the colonies totaled Rs. 8.4 million.^[16] However, this cost was minuscule per capita; for example, the expenditure incurred in the Bombay Presidency was less than one-fifth of that in the Bihar famine of 1873–74, which affected a smaller area and did not last as long.^[13]

Aftermath

The mortality in the famine was in the range of 5.5 million people.^[3] The excessive mortality and the renewed questions of "relief and protection" that were asked in its wake, led directly to the constituting of the Famine Commission of 1880 and to the eventual adoption of the Provisional Famine Code in British India.^[16] After the famine, a large number of agricultural laborers and handloom weavers in South India emigrated to British tropical colonies to work as indentured laborers in plantations.^[18] The excessive mortality in the famine also neutralized the natural population growth in the Bombay and Madras presidencies during the decade between the first and second censuses of British India in 1871 and 1881 respectively.^[19] The famine lives on in the Tamil and other literary traditions.^[20] A large number of Kummi folk songs describing this famine have been documented.^[21]

The Great Famine was to have a lasting political impact on events in India. Among the British administrators in India who were unsettled by the official reactions to the famine and, in particular by the stifling of the official debate about the best form of famine relief, were William Wedderburn and A. O. Hume.^[22] Less than a decade later, they would found the Indian National Congress and, in turn, influence a generation of Indian nationalists. Among the latter were Dadabhai Naoroji and Romesh Chunder Dutt for whom the Great Famine would become a cornerstone of the economic critique of the British Raj.^[22]

See also

• Famines, Epidemics, and Public Health in the British Raj
• Timeline of major famines in India during British rule
• Company rule in India
• Famine in India
• Drought in India
• Great Famine (Ireland)
• Bengal famine of 1943
• El Niño-Southern Oscillation
• William Digby
• Late Victorian Holocausts

Notes

References