Generation

A generation is "all of the people born and living at about the same time, regarded collectively". It can also be described as, "the average period, generally considered to be about thirty years, during which children are born and grow up, become adults, and begin to have children of their own".[1] In kinship terminology, it is a structural term designating the parent-child relationship. It is also known as biogenesis, reproduction, or procreation in the biological sciences.

"Generation" is also often used synonymously with cohort in social science; under this formulation it means "people within a delineated population who experience the same significant events within a given period of time".[2] Generations in this sense of birth cohort, also known as "social generations", are widely used in popular culture, and have been the basis for sociological analysis. Serious analysis of generations began in the nineteenth century, emerging from an increasing awareness of the possibility of permanent social change and the idea of youthful rebellion against the established social order. Some analysts believe that a generation is one of the fundamental social categories in a society, while others view its importance as being overshadowed by other factors including class, gender, race, education, among others.

Etymology

The word generate comes from the Latin generāre, meaning "to beget".[3] The word generation as a cohort in social science signifies the entire body of individuals born and living at about the same time, most of whom are approximately the same age and have similar ideas, problems, and attitudes (e.g., Beat Generation and Lost Generation).[4]

Familial generation

Five generations of one Armenian family—a child with her mother, grandmother, great-grandmother and great-great-grandmother.

A familial generation is a group of living beings constituting a single step in the line of descent from an ancestor.[5] In developed nations the average familial generation length is in the high 20s and has even reached 30 years in some nations.[6] Factors such as greater industrialisation and demand for cheap female labour, urbanisation, delayed first pregnancy and a greater uncertainty in relationship stability have all contributed to the increase of the generation length from the late 18th century to the present. These changes can be attributed to both social factors, such as GDP and state policy, and related individual-level variables, particularly a woman's educational attainment.[7] Conversely, generation length has changed little and remains in the low 20s in less developed nations.[6][8]

An intergenerational rift in the nuclear family, between the parents and two or more of their children, is one of several possible dynamics of a dysfunctional family. Coalitions in families are subsystems within families with more rigid boundaries and are thought to be a sign of family dysfunction.[9]

Social generation

Social generations are cohorts of people born in the same date range and who share similar cultural experiences.[10] The idea of a social generation, in the sense that it is used today, gained currency in the 19th century. Prior to that the concept "generation" had generally referred to family relationships and not broader social groupings. In 1863, French lexicographer Emile Littré had defined a generation as, "all men living more or less at the same time".[11]

Several trends promoted a new idea of generations, as the 19th century wore on, of a society divided into different categories of people based on age. These trends were all related to the processes of modernisation, industrialisation, or westernisation, which had been changing the face of Europe since the mid-18th century. One was a change in mentality about time and social change. The increasing prevalence of enlightenment ideas encouraged the idea that society and life were changeable, and that civilization could progress. This encouraged the equation of youth with social renewal and change. Political rhetoric in the 19th century often focused on the renewing power of youth influenced by movements such as Young Italy, Young Germany, Sturm und Drang, the German Youth Movement, and other romantic movements. By the end of the 19th century, European intellectuals were disposed toward thinking of the world in generational terms—in terms of youth rebellion and emancipation.[11]

Two important contributing factors to the change in mentality were the change in the economic structure of society. Because of the rapid social and economic change, young men particularly were less beholden to their fathers and family authority than they had been. Greater social and economic mobility allowed them to flout their authority to a much greater extent than had traditionally been possible. Additionally, the skills and wisdom of fathers were often less valuable than they had been due to technological and social change.[11] During this time, the period between childhood and adulthood, usually spent at university or in military service, was also increased for many people entering white-collar jobs. This category of people was very influential in spreading the ideas of youthful renewal.[11]

Another important factor was the breakdown of traditional social and regional identifications. The spread of nationalism and many of the factors that created it (a national press, linguistic homogenisation, public education, suppression of local particularities) encouraged a broader sense of belonging beyond local affiliations. People thought of themselves increasingly as part of a society, and this encouraged identification with groups beyond the local.[11]Auguste Comte was the first philosopher to make a serious attempt to systematically study generations. In Cours de philosophie positive Comte suggested that social change is determined by generational change and in particular conflict between successive generations.[12] As the members of a given generation age, their "instinct of social conservation" becomes stronger, which inevitably and necessarily brings them into conflict with the "normal attribute of youth"—innovation. Other important theorists of the 19th century were John Stuart Mill and Wilhelm Dilthey.

Sociologist Karl Mannheim was a seminal figure in the study of generations. He elaborated a theory of generations in his 1923 essay The Problem of Generations.[2] He suggested that there had been a division into two primary schools of study of generations until that time. Firstly, positivists such as Comte measured social change in designated life spans. Mannheim argued that this reduced history to "a chronological table". The other school, the "romantic-historical" was represented by Dilthey and Martin Heidegger. This school focused on the individual qualitative experience at the expense of social context. Mannheim emphasised that the rapidity of social change in youth was crucial to the formation of generations, and that not every generation would come to see itself as distinct. In periods of rapid social change a generation would be much more likely to develop a cohesive character. He also believed that a number of distinct sub-generations could exist.[2]

According to Gilleard and Higgs, Mannheim identified three commonalities that a generation shares:[13]

  • Shared temporal location – generational site or birth cohort
  • Shared historical location – generation as actuality or exposure to a common era
  • Shared sociocultural location – generational consciousness or "entelechy"

Authors William Strauss and Neil Howe developed the Strauss-Howe generational theory outlining what they saw as a pattern of generations repeating throughout American history. This theory became quite influential with the public and reignited an interest in the sociology of generations. This led to the creation of an industry of consulting, publishing, and marketing in the field.[14] The theory has alternatively been criticized by social scientists and journalists who argue it is non-falsifiable, deterministic, and unsupported by rigorous evidence.[15][16][17]

Generational theory

While the concept of a generation has a long history and can be found in ancient literature,[18] there are also psychological and sociological dimensions in the sense of belonging and identity which may define a generation.

The concept of a generation can also be used to locate particular birth cohorts in specific historical and cultural circumstances, such as the "Baby boomers".[18]

While all generations have similarities, there are differences among them as well. A 2007 Pew Research Center report called "Millennials: Confident. Connected. Open to Change" noted the challenge of studying generations: "Generational analysis has a long and distinguished place in social science, and we cast our lot with those scholars who believe it is not only possible, but often highly illuminating, to search for the unique and distinctive characteristics of any given age group of Americans. But we also know this is not an exact science. We are mindful that there are as many differences in attitudes, values, behaviors, and lifestyles within a generation as there are between generations. But we believe this reality does not diminish the value of generational analysis; it merely adds to its richness and complexity."[19] Another element of generational theory is recognizing how youth experience their generation, and how that changes based on where they reside in the world. "Analyzing young people's experiences in place contributes to a deeper understanding of the processes of individualization, inequality, and of generation."[20] Being able to take a closer looks at youth cultures and subcultures in different times and places adds an extra element to understanding the everyday lives of youth. This allows a better understanding of youth and the way generation and place play in their development.[21]

It is not where the birth cohort boundaries are drawn that is important, but how individuals and societies interpret the boundaries and how divisions may shape processes and outcomes. However, the practice of categorizing age cohorts is useful to researchers for the purpose of constructing boundaries in their work.[22]

Generational tension

Norman Ryder, writing in American Sociological Review in 1965, shed light on the sociology of the discord between generations by suggesting that society "persists despite the mortality of its individual members, through processes of demographic metabolism and particularly the annual infusion of birth cohorts". He argued that generations may sometimes be a "threat to stability" but at the same time they represent "the opportunity for social transformation".[23] Ryder attempted to understand the dynamics at play between generations.

Amanda Grenier, in a 2007 essay published in Journal of Social Issues, offered another source of explanation for why generational tensions exist. Grenier asserted that generations develop their own linguistic models that contribute to misunderstanding between age cohorts, "Different ways of speaking exercised by older and younger people exist, and may be partially explained by social historical reference points, culturally determined experiences, and individual interpretations".[24]

Karl Mannheim, in his 1952 book Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge asserted the belief that people are shaped through lived experiences as a result of social change. Howe and Strauss also have written on the similarities of people within a generation being attributed to social change. Based on the way these lived experiences shape a generation in regard to values, the result is that the new generation will challenge the older generation's values, resulting in tension. This challenge between generations and the tension that arises is a defining point for understanding generations and what separates them.[25]

List of generations

Western world

This photograph depicts four generations of one family: a baby boy, his mother, his maternal grandmother, and one of his maternal great-grandmothers.

For the purposes of this list, "Western world" can be taken to include United States, Canada, Western Europe, Australia and New Zealand. Many variations may exist within these regions, both geographically and culturally, which means that the list is broadly indicative, but necessarily very general. The contemporary characterization of these cohorts used in media and advertising borrows from the Strauss–Howe generational theory among others.

  • The Lost Generation, also known as the Generation of 1914 in Europe,[26] is a term originating with Gertrude Stein to describe those who fought in World War I. The members of the lost generation were typically born between 1883 and 1900. All members of this generation are now deceased.
  • The G.I. Generation, is the generation that includes the American veterans who fought in World War II. They were born from around 1901 to 1924, coming of age during the Great Depression. Journalist Tom Brokaw described members of this cohort as the "greatest generation" in a book of the same name.[27]
  • The Silent Generation, also known as the Lucky Few, were born from approximately 1925 to 1942.[28] It includes some who fought in World War II, most of those who fought the Korean War and many during the Vietnam War.
  • The Baby Boomers, also known as the Me Generation, are the generation that were born mostly following World War II. There are no precise dates when the cohort birth years start and end. Typically, they range from the early-to-mid 1940s and end from 1960 to 1964. Increased birth rates were observed during the post–World War II baby boom making them a relatively large demographic cohort.[29][30]
  • Generation X, commonly abbreviated to Gen X, is the generation following the baby boomers. Demographers and researchers typically use starting birth years ranging from the early-to-mid 1960s and ending birth years in the early 1980s. The term has also been used in different times and places for a number of different subcultures or countercultures since the 1950s.
    • In the U.S., some called Generation Xers the "baby bust" generation because of the drop in the birth rate following the baby boom.[31] The drop in fertility rates in America began in the late 1950s. But according to authors and demographers William Strauss and Neil Howe (who use 1961 to 1981 for Gen X birth years), by 1991 there were approximately 88.5 million Gen Xers in the U.S.[32]
  • Millennials, also known as Generation Y,[33] are the cohort of people following Generation X. There are no precise dates for when this cohort starts or ends; demographers and researchers typically use the early 1980s as starting birth years and the mid 1990s to early 2000s as ending birth years. According to Pew Research, in 2019, the Millennials will surpass the Baby Boomers in size in the U.S., with 72 million Boomers and 73 million Millennials.[34]
  • Generation Z, also known as the iGeneration, Post-Millennials, Zoomers, Homeland Generation,[33] or Plurals[33] is the cohort of people born after the Millennials. Demographers and researchers typically use the mid-1990s to mid-2000s as starting birth years.

Other areas

  • In Armenia, people born after the country's independence from the Soviet Union in 1991 are known as the "Independence generation".[35]
  • In the People's Republic of China, the "Post-80s" (Chinese: 八零后世代 or 八零后) (born-after-1980 generation) are those who were born in the 1980s in urban areas of Mainland China. Growing up in modern China, the Post-80s has been characterised by its optimism for the future, newfound excitement for consumerism and entrepreneurship and acceptance of its historic role in transforming modern China into an economic power.[36] There is also the similarly named Post-90s (Chinese: 九零后), referring to modern teenagers and college students. A broader generational classification would be the "one-child generation" born between the introduction of the one-child policy in 1980 and its softening into a "two-child policy" in 2013. The lack of siblings has had profound psychological effects on this generation, such as egoism due to always being at the centre of parents' attention as well as the stress of having to be the sole provider once the parents retire.
  • People born post-1980s in Hong Kong are for the most part different from the same generation in mainland China.[37] The term "Post-80s" (八十後) came into use in Hong Kong between 2009 and 2010, particularly during the opposition to the Guangzhou-Hong Kong Express Rail Link, during which a group of young activists came to the forefront of Hong Kong's political scene.[38] They are said to be "post-materialist" in outlook, and they are particularly vocal in issues such as urban development, culture and heritage, and political reform. Their campaigns include the fight for the preservation of Lee Tung Street, the Star Ferry Pier and the Queen's Pier, Choi Yuen Tsuen Village, real political reform (on 23 June), and a citizen-oriented Kowloon West Art district. Their discourse mainly develops around themes such as anti-colonialism, sustainable development, and democracy.
  • In Germany, generations widely follow the Western world pattern but have many aspects of different Vergangenheitsbewältigung. In German history the start and abolishment of Gleichschaltung in mass movements (Nazi Hitlerjugend and later communist Free German Youth) also shaped generations. The baby boomer generation was heavily challenging their parents and relatives with their past in Nazi Germany and in World War II as well as their (individual) responsibility for the Holocaust but also the survival of the Third Reich in (West) German administration, science, legislation and culture due to claimed unsuccessful denazification. It formed German student movement which translated West Germany in some aspects. Later, Generation Golf (named after the VW Golf) is very similar to Generation X describing the generation that was raised in late West Germany with the specific background of the german separation, then deadlocked German question and cold-war threats. The east-german generation which was born in the mid-eighties and later was little influenced and indoctrinated by East German Communist education system and not captured by Free German Youth. Children in the New states of Germany who were not older than seven years during german reunification are often in a stronger cultural contrast to their parents and relatives while those who were slightly older saw a massive change in their school system, syllabi and breakdown of the youth welfare but also unexpected opportunities and chances in modern Germany.
  • In Poland, two important groups with a shared generational identity are recognized: the Generation of Columbuses, who were born during the brief period of Polish independence in the interbellum and survived World War II, and the "generation of free Poland", born after the dissolution of communism in 1989.
  • In Romania, all people who were born in 1989 are called the Revolution Generation because communism fell that year and Romania experienced a violent revolution that ended the communist regime of Nicolae Ceaușescu and brought democracy to Romania. There was also a demographic called "Decrețeii", representing those that were born during the effect of the communism regime applied Decree 770, which lasted between 1967 and 1989.
  • In South Africa, people born after the first democratic election held after apartheid are often referred to in media as the "born-free generation".[39][40][41]
  • In South Korea, generational cohorts are often defined around the democratization of the country, with various schemes suggested including names such as the "democratization generation", 386 generation[42][43] (named after Intel 386 computer in the 1990s to describe people in their late 30s and early 40s who were born in the 1960s, and attended university/college in the 1980s, also called the "June 3, 1987 generation"), that witnessed the June uprising, the "April 19 generation" (that struggled against the Syngman Rhee regime in 1960), the "June 3 generation" (that struggled against the normalization treaty with Japan in 1964), the "1969 generation" (that struggled against the constitutional revision allowing three presidential terms), and the shin-se-dae ("new") generation.[43][44][45] The term Shin-se-dae generation refers to the generation following Millennials in the Korean language. The Shin-se-dae generation are mostly free from ideological or political bias.[46]
  • In India, generations tend to follow a pattern similar to the broad Western model, although there are still major differences, especially in the older generations.[47] One interpretation sees India's independence in 1947 as India's major generational shift. People born in the 1930s and 1940s tended to be loyal to the new state and tended to adhere to "traditional" divisions of society. Indian "boomers", those born after independence and into the early 1960s, tended to link success to leaving India and were more suspicious of traditional social institutions. Events like the Indian Emergency between 1975 and 1977 made them more sceptical of government. Gen Xers experienced India's economic ascendance and are more comfortable with diverse perspectives. Generation Y continues this pattern.
  • In Iran, the generation born after 1981 up to 1991 are called the "sixties' decade generation," named after the solar calendar 1360 up to 1370, and are known as calm and well-behaved children. Some argue that because of the war between Iran and Iraq at that time, this generation suffers stress and depression. The next generation from 1991 to 2001 or post war are called the "seventies' decade generation," also named after the solar calendar, from 1370 to 1380, who are known to be more aggressive, careless, and perky.
  • In the Philippines, people also identify with Western terms such as "Generation X" and "Millennials", with Filipinos born before or during the Second World War (as well as those living as adults in that period) constituting an unofficial generation. "Martial Law Babies" are generally defined as people born in the time period between the imposition of Martial Law by President Ferdinand Marcos on 21 September 1972 and its formal lifting in January 1981.[48] The term is sometimes extended to anyone born within Marcos' entire 21-year rule, while those born after the 1986 People Power Revolution that toppled the regime are sometimes termed "EDSA Babies".[49]
  • In Taiwan, the term Strawberry generation refers to Taiwanese people born after 1981 who "bruise easily" like strawberries – meaning they can not withstand social pressure or work hard like their parents' generation; the term refers to people who are insubordinate, spoiled, selfish, arrogant, and sluggish in work.
  • 9X Generation is a Vietnamese term for people born during the 1990s.
  • In Russia characteristics of Russian generations are determined by fateful historical event that significantly changes either the foundations of the life of the country as a whole or the rules of life in a certain period of time. Are named and given descriptions of Russian generations: the Generation of Winners,[50] the generation of the Cold War, the generation of Perestroika, the first non-Soviet generation (the children of Perestroika, the Witnesses of Perestroika), the digital generation.[51]

Other terminology

The term generation is sometimes applied to a cultural movement, or more narrowly defined group than an entire demographic. Some examples include:

  • The Stolen Generations, refers to children of Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islander (AATSI) descent, who were removed from their families by the Australian Federal and State government agencies and church missions, under acts of their respective parliaments between approximately 1869 and 1969.
  • The Beat Generation, refers to a popular American cultural movement widely cited by social scholars as having laid the foundation of the pro-active American counterculture of the 1960s. It consisted of Americans born between the two world wars who came of age in the rise of the automobile era, and the surrounding accessibility they brought to the culturally diverse, yet geographically broad and separated nation.[52]
  • Generation Jones is a term coined by Jonathan Pontell to describe the cohort of people born between 1954 and 1965. The term is used primarily in English-speaking countries.[53][54] Pontell defined Generation Jones as referring to the second half of the post–World War II baby boom[55] The term also includes first-wave Generation X.
  • MTV Generation, a term referring to the adolescents and young adults of the 1980s and early 1990s who were heavily influenced by the MTV television channel. It is often used synonymously with Generation X.[56][57][58]
  • In Europe, a variety of terms have emerged in different countries particularly hard hit following the financial crisis of 2007–2008 to designate young people with limited employment and career prospects.[59] The Generation of 500 is a term popularized by the Greek mass media and refers to educated Greek twixters of urban centers who generally fail to establish a career. Young adults are usually forced into underemployment in temporary and occasional jobs, unrelated to their educational background, and receive the minimum allowable base salary of €500. This generation evolved in circumstances leading to the Greek debt crisis and participated in the 2010–2011 Greek protests.[60] In Spain, they are referred to as the mileurista (for €1,000),[61] in France "The Precarious Generation", and in Italy also the generation of 1,000 euros.
  • Xennials, Oregon Trail Generation, and Generation Catalano are terms used to describe individuals born during Generation X/Millennial cusp years, typically late 1970s to early 1980s.[62][63][64]

See also

References

  1. ↑ generation. Dictionary.com. Dictionary.com Unabridged. Random House, Inc. http://www.dictionary.com/browse/generation (accessed: 22 December 2016).
  2. 1 2 3 Pilcher, Jane (September 1994). "Mannheim's Sociology of Generations: An undervalued legacy" (PDF). British Journal of Sociology. 45 (3): 481–495. doi:10.2307/591659. JSTOR 591659. Retrieved 10 October 2012.
  3. ↑ "Generate | Define Generate at Dictionary.com". Dictionary.reference.com. 15 June 1995. Retrieved 10 October 2010.
  4. ↑ "Dictionary.com definition of the word "generation"".
  5. ↑ "Generation". Miriam-Webster.
  6. 1 2 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Social Policy Division SF2.3: Mean age of mothers at first childbirth. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
  7. ↑ Bedasso, Biniam Egu. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 June 2012. Retrieved 6 February 2016. Investing in education as a means and as an end: exploring the microfoundations of the MDGs. United Nations Economic Commission for Africa Research Report, March 2008. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
  8. ↑ Mathews TJ, Hamilton BE. Delayed childbearing: More women are having their first child later in life. NCHS data brief, no 21. Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics. 2009. Retrieved 14 April 2011.
  9. ↑ Whiteman, Shawn D.; McHale, Susan M.; Soli, Anna."Theoretical Perspectives on Sibling Relationships", J Fam Theory Rev., 2012 Jun 1; Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 124–139, PMC 3127252.
  10. ↑ Mannheim, k (1952). Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge. London: RKP.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 Wohl, Robert (1979). The generation of 1914. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 203–209. ISBN 978-0-674-34466-2.
  12. ↑ "Hans Jaeger. Generations in History: Reflections on a Controversy. Translation of "Generationen in der Geschichte: Überlegungen zu einer umstrittenen Konzeption," originally published in Geschichte und Gesellschaft 3 (1977), 429–452. p 275" (PDF). Retrieved 10 October 2010.
  13. ↑ Gilleard, C. & Higgs, P. (2002). "The third age: Class, cohort or generation?". Ageing and Society. 22 (3): 369–382. doi:10.1017/s0144686x0200870x.
  14. ↑ Hoover, Eric (11 October 2009). "The Millennial Muddle". The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved 8 March 2018.
  15. ↑ Brooks, David (5 November 2000). "What's the Matter With Kids Today? Not a Thing". The New York Times. Retrieved 8 March 2018.
  16. ↑ Lind, Michael (January 26, 1997). "Generation Gaps". The New York Times Book Review. Retrieved 8 March 2018.
  17. ↑ Giancola, Frank (December 1, 2006). "The Generation Gap: More Myth Than Reality". Human Resource Planning. Retrieved July 5, 2018.
  18. 1 2 Biggs, Simon (2007). "Thinking about generations: Conceptual positions and policy implications". Journal of Social Issues. 63 (4): 695–711. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.2007.00531.x.
  19. ↑ Taylor, P. & Keeter, S. (Eds.) (24 February 2010). "The Millennials. Confident, Connected. Open to Change". p. 5. Archived from the original on 27 February 2010. Retrieved 24 February 2010.
  20. ↑ Dan Woodman, Johanna Wyn (2015). Youth and Generation. Los Angeles, London, New Delhi.Singapore, Washington DC: SAGE. p. 164. ISBN 978-1-4462-5904-7.
  21. ↑ Woodman, Dan; Wyn, Johanna (2015). Youth and Generation Rethinking Change and Inequity in the Lives of Young People. London: Sage Publications Ltd. p. 122. ISBN 978-1-4462-5904-7.
  22. ↑ Grenier, Amanda (2007). "Crossing age and generational boundaries: Exploring intergenerational research encounters". Journal of Social Issues. 63 (4): 713–727. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.2007.00532.x.
  23. ↑ Ryder, Norman (1965). "The cohort as a concept in the study of social change". American Sociological Review. 30 (6): 843–861. doi:10.2307/2090964. JSTOR 2090964.
  24. ↑ Grenier, Amanda (2007). "Crossing age and generational boundaries: Exploring intergenerational research encounters". Journal of Social Issues. 63 (4): 718. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.2007.00532.x.
  25. ↑ Mannheim, Karl. (1952) 'The problem of generations', in K. Mannheim, Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge, London: RKP
  26. ↑ Wohl, Robert (1979). The generation of 1914. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-34466-2.
  27. ↑ Hunt, Tristram (6 June 2004). "One last time they gather, the Greatest Generation". The Observer. London. Retrieved 24 August 2009.
  28. ↑ Strauss, William; Neil Howe (1991). Generations: The History of Americas Future, 1584 to 2069. New York, NY: Harper Perennial. p. 279. ISBN 0-688-11912-3.
  29. ↑ See:
    • Brandon, Emily. "The Youngest Baby Boomers Turn 50". US News & World Report. Retrieved 11 November 2015.
    • "Baby Boomers". History.com. Retrieved 11 November 2015.
    • Fry, Richard. "This year, Millennials will overtake Baby Boomers". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 11 November 2015.
    • Howe, Neil; Strauss, William (1991). Generations: The History of Americas Future, 1584 to 2069. New York: William Morrow. pp. 299–316. ISBN 0-688-11912-3.
    • Owram, Doug (1997). Born at the Right Time. Toronto: Univ Of Toronto Press. p. xiv. ISBN 0-8020-8086-3.
    • Jones, Landon (1980). Great Expectations: America and the Baby Boom Generation. New York: Coward, McCann and Geoghegan.
  30. ↑ U.S. Census Bureau
  31. ↑ Encyclopedia of Identity By Ronald L. Jackson, II
  32. ↑ William Strauss, Neil Howe (1991). Generations. New York, NY: Harper Perennial. p. 318. ISBN 0-688-11912-3.
  33. 1 2 3 Horovitz, Bruce (4 May 2012). "After Gen X, Millennials, what should next generation be?". USA Today. Retrieved 24 November 2012.
  34. ↑ "Pew Research Center, from Statistics Provided by US Dept. Health and Human Services". Millennials projected to overtake Baby Boomers as America’s largest generation. Pew Research Center. 1 March 2018. Retrieved 9 August 2018.
  35. ↑ "The Independence Generation". Asbarez.com. Retrieved 29 January 2016.
  36. ↑ Yan, Yunxiang (2006). "Little Emperors or Frail Pragmatists? China's '80ers Generation". Current History: A Journal of Contemporary World Affairs. 105 (692): 255–262.
  37. ↑ Lee, Coleen (15 January 2010). "Post 80s rebels with a cause". The Standard. Archived from the original on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 20 June 2010.
  38. ↑ Kwong wing-yuen (ed.), Zhan zai dan de yi bian, Xianggang bashihou, Hong Kong, UP Publications Limited, 2010, pp. 16–32.
  39. ↑ "South Africa's 'born-free' generation". BBC News. Retrieved 29 January 2016.
  40. ↑ Smith, David. "South Africans vote in first election for 'born free' generation". The Guardian. Retrieved 29 January 2016.
  41. ↑ Essa, Azad. "Why aren't South Africa's born frees voting?". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 29 January 2016.
  42. ↑ "Fiasco of 386 Generation". The Korea Times. Archived from the original on 28 March 2010. Retrieved 10 October 2010.
  43. 1 2 "Shinsedae: Conservative Attitudes of a 'New Generation' in South Korea and the Impact on the Korean Presidential Election". Eastwestcenter.org. Archived from the original on 15 September 2010. Retrieved 10 October 2010.
  44. ↑ "[Social cohesion (9)] Ideological differences divide generations". The Korea Herald. 26 August 2009. Archived from the original on 5 February 2010.
  45. ↑ Korea Journal http://www.ekoreajournal.net/upload/pdf/PDF4033M. Retrieved 10 October 2010. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  46. ↑ Sun Young, Park. "SHINSEDAE: CONSERVATIVE ATTITUDES OF A 'NEW GENERATION' IN SOUTH KOREA AND THE IMPACT ON THE KOREAN PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION". East-West Centre. Hankook Ilbo. Archived from the original on 15 September 2010. Retrieved 22 May 2017.
  47. ↑ "Generational Differences Between India and the U.S". Blogs.harvardbusiness.org. 28 February 2009. Retrieved 10 October 2010.
  48. ↑ Nocon, Paula C. (24 September 2002). "Martial Law Babies". The Philippine Star (in English and Tagalog). Retrieved 17 February 2015. Strictly speaking, Martial Law Babies are those brats born between 1972, the year Ferdinand Marcos declared Batas Militar on September 21, to 1981, the year he pretended to lift it. But pretenses aside, the spirit of repression, some say, began in 1966, (sic) when Marcos began carrying out his Napoleonic delusions, and ended in 1986, when a flat-shoed Cory Aquino stepped inside Malacanang and discovered thousands of high heels...Symbolically, the twenty-year (sic) Marcos regime has as its inner core the 10 years of Martial Law.
  49. ↑ Burgos, Arlene (25 February 2014). "What are you: Martial Law Baby or EDSA Baby?" (in English and Tagalog). ABS-CBNnews.com. Retrieved 17 February 2015. Read on and find out: Were you a Martial Law baby? Were you someone born between the time Ferdinand Marcos became president and when Martial Law was formally lifted in 1981? Or were you born after the downfall of the Marcos regime in 1986 -- an EDSA baby?
  50. ↑ Tsvetkova G.A. Richly, beautifully, happily: the cultural strategies of everyday live "Generation Winners // Educational sciences – 2013 №6. ISSN: 2072-2524 .
  51. ↑ Miroshkina M.R.Interpretations of the Generations Theory in the Context of Russian Education // Yaroslavl Pedagogical Herald - 2017, №6 .
  52. ↑ "The Beat Generation". Retrieved 29 January 2016.
  53. ↑ Jensen, J.B. (2007). Future consumer tendencies and shopping behaviour: The development up until 2015-17. Research paper No. 1. Denmark: Marianne Levinsen & Jesper Bo Jensen. pp. 13–17. Archived from the original on 22 January 2013. Seigle, Greg (6 April 2000). "Some Call It 'Jones'". The Washington Post. Retrieved 18 February 2007.
  54. ↑ "Press Release: Generation Jones is driving NZ Voter Volatility". Scoop Independent News (NZ). 13 September 2005. Retrieved 18 February 2007.
  55. ↑ Wastell, David (15 October 2000). "Generation Jones comes of age in time for election". The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 12 June 2009.
  56. ↑ "The MetLife Study of Gen X: The MTV Generation Moves into Mid-Life" (PDF). MetLife. April 2013. Retrieved 1 July 2017.
  57. ↑ Raphelson, Samantha (6 October 2014). "From GIs To Gen Z (Or Is It iGen?): How Generations Get Nicknames". NPR. Retrieved 1 July 2017.
  58. ↑ "MTV: Rewinding 20 years of music revolution". CNN. 1 August 2001.
  59. ↑ Itano, Nicole (14 May 2009). "In Greece, education isn't the answer". Global Post. Retrieved 28 January 2013.
  60. ↑ "Γενιά των 600 € και ″αγανακτισμένοι″ της Μαδρίτης - βίοι παράλληλοι; - Πολιτική - DW.COM - 30.05.2011". DW.COM. Retrieved 29 January 2016.
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  62. ↑ Anna, Garvey (25 May 2016). "The Biggest Difference Between Millennials and My Generation". Huffington Post. Retrieved 1 July 2017.
  63. ↑ D'Souza, Joy (28 June 2017). "Xennials, The Microgeneration Between Gen X And Millennials". huffington post. Retrieved 29 June 2017.
  64. ↑ Shafrir, Doree (24 October 2011). "Generation Catalano". Slate. The Slate Group. Retrieved 1 July 2017.

Further reading

  • Fry, Richard (January 16, 2015). "This Year, Millennials Will Overtake Baby Boomers". Pew Center.
  • Ialenti, Vincent (April 6, 2016). "Generation". Cultural Anthropology.
  • Ulrike Jureit: Generation, Generationality, Generational Research, version: 2, in: Docupedia Zeitgeschichte, 09. August 2017
  • "Generations and Population Doublings". optusnet.com.au.
  • "Resources on the Generations". McCrindle.com.au.
  • "What is Generation Jones?". Wisegeek.com.
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