Aviation biofuel

US Marine AV-8B Harrier test flight using a 50-50 biofuel blend in 2011.

Aviation biofuel is a biofuel used for aircraft. It is considered by some to be the primary means by which the aviation industry can reduce its carbon footprint. After a multi-year technical review from aircraft makers, engine manufacturers and oil companies, biofuels were approved for commercial use in July 2011.[1] Since then, some airlines have experimented with using biofuels on commercial flights.[2] The focus of the industry has now turned to second generation sustainable biofuels (sustainable aviation fuels) that do not compete with food supplies nor are major consumers of prime agricultural land or fresh water. NASA has determined that 50% aviation biofuel mixture can cut air pollution caused by air traffic by 50-70%.[3]

The sustainable aviation fuels certification and production pace seems insufficient to meet the IATA target of halving the CO2 emissions by 2050.[4]

Trials of using algae as biofuel were carried out by Lufthansa, and Virgin Airlines as early as 2008, although there is little evidence that using algae is a reasonable source for jet biofuels.[5] By 2015, cultivation of fatty acid methyl esters and alkenones from the algae, Isochrysis, was under research as a possible jet biofuel feedstock.[6]

As of 2017, there was little progress in producing jet fuel from algae, with a forecast that only 3 to 5% of fuel needs could be provided from algae by 2050.[7] Further, algae companies that formed in the early 21st century as a base for an algae biofuel industry have either closed or changed their business development toward other commodities, such as cosmetics, animal feed, or specialty oil products.[8]


Rationale for aviation biofuels

Aviation's share of the greenhouse gas emissions is poised to grow, as air travel increases and ground vehicles use more alternative fuels like ethanol and biodiesel. Currently aviation represents 2% of global emissions, but is expected to grow to 3% by 2050.[9] In addition to building more fuel efficient aircraft and operating them more efficiently, changing the fuel source is one of the few options the aviation industry has for reducing its carbon footprint. While solar, electric and hydrogen propelled aircraft are being researched, it is not expected they will be feasible in the near or medium term due to aviation's need for high power-to-weight ratio and globally compatible infrastructure.

Concerns and challenges

Biodiesel that is stored for long periods of time is more likely to oxidize, especially at low temperatures, causing it to gel. Some additives improve the cold weather tolerance of biodiesel, but only by a few degrees.[10] Nitrile-based rubber materials expand in the presence of aromatic compounds found in conventional petroleum fuel. Pure biofuels that aren't mixed with petroleum and don't contain paraffin-based additives may cause rubber seals and hoses to shrink.[11] Manufacturers are starting to use a synthetic rubber substitute called Viton for seals and hoses. Viton isn't adversely affected by biofuels.[12] The US Air Force has found harmful bacteria and fungi in their biofueled aircraft, and use pasteurization to disinfect them.[13]

Industry commitments and collaborations

The International Air Transport Association (IATA) supports research, development and deployment of alternative fuels. IATA thinks a 6% share of sustainable 2nd generation biofuels is achievable by 2020,[14] and Boeing supports a target of 1% of global aviation fuels by 2015.[15] This is in support of the goals of the aviation industry reaching carbon neutral growth by 2020 and a 50% decrease in carbon emissions by 2050 (relative to a 2005 baseline)[16]

A group of interested airlines has formed the Sustainable Aviation Fuel Users Group (SAFUG). The group was formed in 2008 in cooperation with support from NGOs such as Natural Resources Defense Council and The Roundtable For Sustainable Biofuels (RSB). Member airlines represent more than 15% of the industry, and all member CEOs have signed a pledge to work on the development and use of sustainable biofuels for aviation.[17]

Boeing is joining other aviation-related members in the Algal Biomass Organization (ABO).[18]

Production routes and sources

Jet fuel is a mixture of a large number of different hydrocarbons. The range of their sizes (molecular weights or carbon numbers) is restricted by the requirements for the product, for example, freezing point or smoke point. Jet fuels are sometimes classified as kerosene or naphtha-type. Kerosene-type fuels include Jet A, Jet A-1, JP-5 and JP-8. Naphtha-type jet fuels, sometimes referred to as "wide-cut" jet fuel, include Jet B and JP-4.

"Drop-in" biofuels are biofuels that are completely interchangeable with conventional fuels. Deriving "drop-in" jet fuel from bio-based sources is ASTM approved via two routes.

Bio-SPK

The first route involves using oil which is extracted from plant sources like Jatropha, algae, tallows, other waste oils, Babassu and Camelina to produce bio-SPK (Bio derived synthetic paraffinic Kerosene) by cracking and hydroprocessing.

The growing of algae to make jet fuel is a promising but still emerging technology. Companies working on algae jet fuel are Solazyme, Honeywell UOP, Solena, Sapphire Energy, Imperium Renewables, and Aquaflow Bionomic Corporation. Universities working on algae jet fuel are Arizona State University and Cranfield University

Major investors for algae based SPK research are Boeing, Honeywell/UOP, Air New Zealand, Continental Airlines, Japan Airlines, and General Electric.

FT-SPK

The second route involves processing solid biomass using pyrolysis to produce pyrolysis oil or gasification to produce a syngas which is then processed into FT SPK (Fischer–Tropsch Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene).

Future production routes

Further research is being done on an alcohol-to-jet pathway where alcohols such as ethanol or butanol are de-oxygenated and processed into jet fuels. In addition, routes that use synthetic biology to directly create hydro-carbons are being researched.

Commercial and demonstration flights

Since 2008, a large number of test flights have been conducted, and since ASTM approval in July 2011,[1] several commercial flights with passengers have also occurred.

Demonstration flights

DateOperatorPlatformBiofuelNotes
2 October 2007GreenFlight InternationalAero L-29 DelfínWaste Vegetable OilGreenflight International made the very first flight of an aircraft powered entirely by 100% biofuel from the Reno, Stead airport on the afternoon of 2 October 2007. There is no citation for this entry - it was made by the pilot that flew it. In November 2008 the same aircraft and flight crew flew from Reno, NV to Leesburg, FL using 100% biofuel for the first seven of the nine legs, the remaining three were completed on a 50% biofuel 50% JetA blend.
February 2008Virgin AtlanticBoeing 747Coconut and BabassuVirgin flew a biofuel test flight between London and Amsterdam, using a 20% blend of biofuels in one of its engines[19][20]
December 2008Air New ZealandBoeing 747JatrophaA two-hour test flight using a 50-50 mixture of the new biofuel with Jet A-1 in the number one position Rolls Royce RB-211 engine of 747-400 ZK-NBS, was successfully completed on 30 December 2008. The engine was then removed to be scrutinised and studied to identify any differences between the Jatropha blend and regular Jet A1. No effects to performance were found.[21]
January 2009Continental AirlinesBoeing 737Algae and JatrophaContinental Airlines ran the first flight of an algae-fueled jet. The flight from Houston's George Bush Intercontinental Airport completed a circuit over the Gulf of Mexico. The pilots on board executed a series of tests at 38,000 feet (12,000 m), including a mid-flight engine shutdown. Larry Kellner, chief executive of Continental Airlines, said they had tested a drop-in fuel which meant that no modification to the engine was required. The fuel was praised for having a low flash point and sufficiently low freezing point, issues that have been problematic for other bio-fuels.[22][23]
January 2009Japan AirlinesBoeing 747Camelina, Jatropha and algaeJapan Airlines conducted a one and a half hour flight with one engine burning a 50/50 mix of Jet-A and biofuel from the Camelina plant.[24]
April 2010US NavyF/A-18CamelinaThe Navy tested this biofuel blend on the F⁄A-18 Super Hornet aka "Green Hornet". Results from those tests indicated the aircraft performed as expected through its full flight envelope with no degradation of capability.[25]
March 2010US Air ForceA-10CamelinaOn March 25, 2010, the United States Air Force conducted the first flight of an aircraft with all engines powered by a biofuel blend. The flight, performed on an A-10 at Eglin Air Force Base, used a 50/50 blend of JP-8 and Camelina-based fuel.[26]
June 2010Dutch MilitaryAh-64 Apache HelicopterWaste vegetable oil
June 2010EADSDiamond D42AlgaeOccurred at an air show in Berlin in June 2010.[27]
November 2010US NavyMH-60S SeahawkCamelinaFlown on 50⁄50 biofuel blend Nov. 18, 2010 in Patuxent River, Md. The helicopter, from Air Test and Evaluation Squadron 21 at Naval Air Station Patuxent River tested a fuel mixture made from the Camelina seed.
November 2010TAMAirbus 320JatrophaA 50⁄50 biofuel blend of conventional and jatropha oil[28]
June 2011BoeingBoeing 747-8FCamelinaBoeing flew its new model 747-8F to the Paris Air Show with all four engines burning a 15% mix of biofuel from camelina[29]
June 2011HoneywellGulfstream G450CamelinaThe first transatlantic biofuels flight using a 50/50 blend of camelina-based biofuel and petroleum-based fuel.[30][31]
August 2011US NavyT-45CamelinaSuccessfully flew a T-45 training aircraft using biofuels at the Naval Air Station (NAS) in Patuxent River, Maryland. The flight was completed by the “Salty Dogs” of Air Test and Evaluation Squadron 23 flying on biofuel mixture of 50/50 petroleum-based JP-5 jet fuel and plant-based camelina.[32]
September 2011US NavyAV-8BCamelinaNaval Air Warfare Center Weapons Division, China Lake performed the first bio-fuel flight test in AV-8B Harrier from Air Test and Evaluation Squadron 31.[33]
October 2011Air ChinaBoeing 747-400JatrophaAir China flew China's first flight using aviation biofuels. The flight was conducted using Chinese grown jatropha oil from PetroChina. The flight was 2 hours in duration above Beijing, and used 50% biofuel in 1 engine.[34]
November 2011Continental AirlinesBoeing 737-800AlgaeUnited / Continental flew a biofuel flight from IAH to ORD on algae jet fuel supplied by Solazyme. The fuel was partially derived from genetically modified algae that feed on plant waste and produce oil. It was the first biofuel-powered air service in the US.[35]
November 2011Alaska AirlinesBoeing 737 and Bombardier Q400AlgaeAlaska Airlines and its sister carrier, Horizon Air, converted 75 flights on their schedules to run on a fuel mixture of 80% kerosene and 20% biofuel derived from used cooking oil. The biofuel was made by Dynamic Fuels, a joint venture of Tyson Foods and Syntroleum Corp.[36]
January 2012Etihad AirwaysBoeing 777-300ERWaste vegetable oilEtihad Airways conducted a biofuel flight from Abu Dhabi to Seattle using a combination of traditional jet fuel and fuel based on recycled vegetable cooking oil[37]
April 2012QantasAirbus A330Refined cooking oilQantas used 50/50 mix of biofuel supplied by SkyNRG and Jet-A fuel in one engine for a flight from Sydney to Adelaide.[38]
April 2012Porter AirlinesBombardier Q400Camelina and Brassica carinataPorter Airlines used 50/50 mix of biofuel (49% Camelina sativa and 1% Brassica carinataand) and Jet-A fuel in one engine for a flight from Toronto to Ottawa.[39]
October 2012NRCDassault Falcon 20Brassica carinataFirst jet to fly on 100% biofuels that meet petroleum specifications without blending. Fuel was produced by Applied Research Associates (ARA) and Chevron Lummus Global (CLG) from carinata oil supplied by Agrisoma Biosciences.[40]
March 2013Paramus Flying ClubCessna 182 SkylaneWaste vegetable oilFirst piston engine aircraft to fly with a 50/50 blend of aviation biofuel and conventional Jet-A (as specified by ASTM D7566). First piston engine aircraft to fly with a biofuel blend operating under a standard (not experimental) airworthiness certificate. Demonstration flight from North Central State Airport (KSFZ) in Rhode Island to First Flight Airport (KFFA) in North Carolina took place on March 2, 2013. The Cessna 182 had been converted under STC to be powered by an SMA jet-fuel diesel cycle piston engine, and the blended biofuel was provided by SkyNRG of Holland.
August 28, 2018 Spicejet Airlines, India Bombardier Q400 (VT-SUI) Agricultural residues, non-edible oils and bio-degradable fractions of industrial and municipal wastes India’s first biofuel-powered flight was successfully tested between Dehradun to Delhi carrying DGCA officials to ascertain the feasibility of biofuel powered flights.

Commercial flights

DateOperatorPlatformBiofuelNotes
June 30, 2011KLMBoeing 737-800Waste vegetable oilKLM flew the world's first commercial biofuel flight, carrying 171 passengers from Amsterdam to Paris[41][42]
July 15, 2011LufthansaAirbus A321Jatropha, Camelina and animal fatsFirst German commercial biofuel's flight, and the start of 6-month regular series of flights from Hamburg to Frankfurt with one of the two engines use biofuel.[43] It officially ended on January 12, 2012 with a flight from Frankfurt to Washington and would not take biofuel further unless the biofuel was more widely produced.[44]
July 20, 2011FinnairAirbus A319Waste vegetable oilThe 1,500 km journey between Amsterdam and Helsinki was fuelled with a mix of 50 per cent biofuel derived from used cooking oil and 50 per cent conventional jet fuel.[45] Finnair says it will conduct at least three weekly Amsterdam-to-Helsinki flights using the biofuel blend in both of the aircraft's engines. Refueling will be done at Amsterdam Airport Schiphol.[46]
Jul 2011InterjetAirbus A320JatrophaFlight was powered by 27% jatropha between Mexico City and Tuxtla Gutierrez[47]
Aug 2011AeroMexicoBoeing 777-200JatrophaAeromexico flew the world's first trans-Atlantic revenue flight, from Mexico City to Madrid with passengers[48]
Oct 2011Thomson AirwaysBoeing 757-200Waste vegetable oilThomson flew the UK's first commercial biofuel flight from Birmingham Airport on one engine using biofuel from used cooking oil, supplied by SkyNRG[49]
Nov 2011Continental AirlinesBoeing 737-800Algae fuelUnited / Continental flew biofuel flight from IAH to ORD on algae jet fuel, which supplied by Solazyme[50]
April 19, 2012Jetstar AirwaysAirbus A320Refined cooking oilJQ flight 705 departed Melbourne at 0950 and arrived in Hobart at 1105 supplied by SkyNRG [51]
March 13, 2013KLMBoeing 777-206ERWaste vegetable oilKLM begins weekly flights by a Boeing 777-200 between John F. Kennedy Airport in New York City, USA and Amsterdam’s Schiphol Airport, Netherlands[52] using Biofuel supplied by SkyNRG[53]
May 16, 2014KLMAirbus A330-200Waste vegetable oilKLM begins weekly flights by an Airbus A330-200 between Queen Beatrix International Airport, in Oranjestad Aruba [54] and Amsterdam’s Schiphol Airport, Netherlands (with a stop-over in Bonaire)[52] using Biofuel supplied by SkyNRG[53]
Aug 4, 2014Gol Transportes AéreosBoeing 737-700Inedible corn oil and Waste vegetable oilGol Flight 2152 took off from Rio Santos Dumont Airport (SDU) towards Brasilia (BSB) with a 4% mix of bio jetfuel [55]
Nov 7, 2014Scandinavian AirlinesBoeing 737-600Waste vegetable oilSAS Flight SK2064 flew their first ever flight using bio-fuel between Stockholm and Östersund using a 10% blend of JET A1 based on used cooking oil. It was also the first flight from Arlanda Airport[56]
Nov 11, 2014Scandinavian AirlinesBoeing 737-700Waste vegetable oilSAS Flight SK371 flew the first ever Norwegian domestic flight using bio-fuel between Trondheim and Oslo using a 48% blend of JET A1 based on used cooking oil[57]
Mar 21, 2015Hainan AirlinesBoeing 737-800Waste vegetable oilHainan Airlines conducted China's first commercial biofuel flight carrying 156 passengers from Shanghai to Beijing. The fuel, supplied by Sinopec, was a fuel blend of approximately 50 percent aviation biofuel mixed with conventional petroleum jet fuel.[58]
Mar 31, 2016 KLM Embraer 190 Unknown KLM operated an Embraer 190 on Biofuel between Oslo and Schiphol, Amsterdam. Embraer used these flights to measure the efficiency of the Embraer 190 on biofuel.[59]
Sept 8, 2016 KLM Boeing 747-400 Waste vegetable oil KLM signed a contract to operate all daily flights from LAX to Schiphol, Amsterdam. SkyNRG supplies the sustainable biofuel, which is made from used cooking oil by AltAir Fuels in Los Angeles. All flights from Los Angeles to Amsterdam are operated with biofuel until 2019.[60]
May 1, 2017 Singapore Airlines Airbus A350-900 HEFA (hydro-processed esters and fatty acids) Singapore Airlines begun a series of biofuel flights using A350-900 aircraft on non-stop trans-Pacific flights between Singapore and San Francisco. The project is being undertaken by Singapore Airlines in conjunction with the Civil Aviation Authority of Singapore and air navigation service providers, using enhanced flight operations and Air Traffic Management (ATM) practices along the flight route.

Environmental effects

A life cycle assessment by the Yale School of Forestry on jatropha, one source of potential biofuels, estimated using it could reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 85% if former agro-pastoral land is used, or increase emissions by up to 60% if natural woodland is converted to use.[61] In addition, biofuels do not contain sulfur compounds and thus do not emit sulfur dioxide.

Many different standards exist for certification of sustainable biofuels. One such standard often cited by airlines is the one developed by the Roundtable For Sustainable Biofuels. Nearly all such standards include a minimum amount of greenhouse gas reduction and consideration that biofuels do not compete with food.

See also

References

  1. 1 2 "Airlines Win Approval to Use Biofuels for Commercial Flights". Bloomberg.com. 1 July 2011. Retrieved 25 September 2015.
  2. ↑ Airlines Weigh the Advantages of Biofuels
  3. ↑ http://www.flyingmag.com/nasa-confirms-biofuels-reduce-jet-emissions
  4. ↑ Kerry Reals (Oct 10, 2017). "Glacial Pace Of Advancements In Biofuel Threatens Emissions Targets". Aviation Week & Space Technology.
  5. ↑ "First biofuel flight touches down". BBC News. 24 February 2008. Archived from the original on 29 February 2008. Retrieved 24 February 2008.
  6. ↑ Chris Reddy; Greg O'Neil (28 January 2015). "Jet Fuel from Algae? Scientists probe fuel potential in common ocean plant". Retrieved 26 March 2018.
  7. ↑ "From green slime to jet fuel: algae offers airlines a cleaner future". Reuters. 15 June 2016.
  8. ↑ Wessof, Eric (19 April 2017). "Hard Lessons From the Great Algae Biofuel Bubble". Greentech Media. Retrieved 26 March 2018.
  9. ↑ "IPCC Special Report on Aviation Global Emissions". Retrieved 25 September 2015.
  10. ↑ "Renewable and Alternative Energy Fact Sheet" (PDF). Agricultural Research and Cooperative Extension. Penn State College of Agricultural Science. Retrieved March 7, 2012.
  11. ↑ "Technical Report: Near-Term Feasibility of Alternative Jet Fuels" (PDF). Sponsored by the FAA. Authored by MIT staff. Published by RAND Corporation. Retrieved August 22, 2012.
  12. ↑ "Biodiesel FAQ" (PDF). University of Kentucky College of Agriculture. 2006. Retrieved August 22, 2012.
  13. ↑ http://www.af.mil/News/ArticleDisplay/tabid/223/Article/939659/afrl-discovering-whats-bugging-military-aircraft.aspx
  14. ↑ IATA. "IATA - Page not found". Retrieved 25 September 2015.
  15. ↑ "Airlines May Get 1% of Fuel From Biofuels By 2015, Boeing Says". Bloomberg.com. 22 July 2010. Retrieved 25 September 2015.
  16. ↑ IATA. "IATA - Carbon-Neutral Growth By 2020". Retrieved 25 September 2015.
  17. ↑ 'SAFUG Pledge' Archived April 25, 2012, at the Wayback Machine.
  18. ↑ First Airlines and UOP Join Algal Biomass Organization, Green Car Congress, 19 June 2008.
  19. ↑ Dunn, Graham (24 February 2008). "Partners carry out first biofuel flight using Virgin 747". Flight International. Retrieved 25 August 2012.
  20. ↑ Virgin Atlantic Airways. "Virgin Atlantic Airways - Popup". Retrieved 25 September 2015.
  21. ↑ 'Air New Zealand Demonstration Flight'
  22. ↑ Lane, Jim (2009-01-08). "Continental Airlines tests aviation biofuel; first use of algae; first US biofuel test flight; first two-engine flight". Biofuels Digest. Archived from the original on 2009-12-25. Retrieved 2009-09-20.
  23. ↑ "First flight of algae-fuelled jet". BBC. 2009-01-08.
  24. ↑ "Jan 30, 2009 JAL Flight Brings Aviation One Step Closer to Using Biofuel". Retrieved 25 September 2015.
  25. ↑ This story was written Robert Kaper, Naval Air Systems Command Public Affairs. "Fuels Team Plans Super Hornet Biofuels Flight Test". Retrieved 25 September 2015.
  26. ↑ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2010-04-09. Retrieved 2010-04-22.
  27. ↑ Morris, John (2010-06-07). "EADS Sets First Public Algae-Biofuel Flight At ILA Berlin". Aviation Week. Retrieved 2010-07-12.
  28. ↑ "Biofuel Airbus A320 completes first successful test flight". Retrieved 25 September 2015.
  29. ↑ "PARIS: 747-8F biofuel pilot takes landmark flight in his stride". Flightglobal.com. Retrieved 25 September 2015.
  30. ↑ Cattermole, Tannith (June 26, 2011). "Gulfstream G450 crosses the Atlantic on 50/50 biofuel-jetfuel blend". GizMag. Retrieved March 7, 2012.
  31. ↑ Paur, Jason (June 17, 2011). "Trans-Atlantic Biofuel Flights Kick Off Paris Air Show". WIRED. Retrieved March 7, 2012.
  32. ↑ "US Navy Completes Successful T-45 Biofuel Flight". Energy. Retrieved 25 September 2015.
  33. ↑ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2012-04-03. Retrieved 2011-10-22.
  34. ↑ http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/bizchina/2011-10/29/content_14000985.htm 'China's first biofuels flight'
  35. ↑ Hilkevitch, Jon (November 11, 2011). "Continental Airlines flight is first in U.S. to use biofuel". LA Times. Retrieved April 16, 2012.
  36. ↑ "Alaska Airlines Launching Biofuel-Powered Commercial Service In The United States" (Press release). Alaska Airlines. November 7, 2011. Retrieved December 30, 2011.
  37. ↑ "Etihad conducts Seattle-Abu Dhabi biofuel flight". Retrieved 25 September 2015.
  38. ↑ "Qantas makes its first flight on refined cooking oil, to reduce reliance on traditional jet fuel". 2012-04-13.
  39. ↑ Chittley, Jordan (2012-04-18). "Porter Airlines operates first biofuel-powered passenger flight in Canada".
  40. ↑ "NRC Flies World's First Civil Jet Powered by 100 Percent Biofuel". Aero-news Network. 7 November 2012. Retrieved 21 November 2012.
  41. ↑ 'First commercial biofuel flight' Archived October 14, 2011, at the Wayback Machine.
  42. ↑ "History - KLM Corporate" (in Dutch). Retrieved 2017-04-15.
  43. ↑ "Lufthansa's biofuel trial takes to the air with first commercial flight". Retrieved 25 September 2015.
  44. ↑ "Lufthansa Wraps up Biofuel Test on German Flights". January 12, 2012.
  45. ↑ "Finnair's scheduled commercial biofuel flight marks a step towards more sustainable flying, says airline on GreenAir Online". Retrieved 25 September 2015.
  46. ↑ Eric Loveday (20 July 2011). "Finnair to attempt longest commercial biofuel flight in aviation history". Autoblog. Retrieved 25 September 2015.
  47. ↑ "Mexico's Interjet conducts commercial biofuel flight". Flightglobal.com. Retrieved 25 September 2015.
  48. ↑ Marketing Aeroméxico. "Aeromexico United States - Travel with Aeromexico". aeromexico. Retrieved 25 September 2015.
  49. ↑ "Thomson Airways operates Britain's first biofuel flight". Breaking Travel News. Retrieved 25 September 2015.
  50. ↑ Hilkevitch, Jon (2011-11-11). "Continental Airlines flight is first in U.S. to use biofuel". Los Angeles Times.
  51. ↑ "First commercial sustainable aviation fuel flight to Tasmania". Archived from the original on 26 September 2015. Retrieved 25 September 2015.
  52. 1 2 "KLM Takes Care". Retrieved 25 September 2015.
  53. 1 2 "SkyNRG Home - SkyNRG". SkyNRG. Retrieved 25 September 2015.
  54. ↑ "KLM Takes Care". Retrieved 25 September 2015.
  55. ↑ "Precisamos de bioindústria funcionando com excelência no país". Ubrabio - União Brasileira de Biodiesel e Bioquerosene. Retrieved 25 September 2015.
  56. ↑ SAS. "SAS today flew their first flight on synthetic JET A1 based on renewable sources". SAS. Retrieved 25 September 2015.
  57. ↑ SAS. "SAS tar av med biofuel". SAS. Retrieved 25 September 2015.
  58. ↑ "Boeing, Hainan Airlines Operate China's First Cooking Oil-powered Flight". CleanTechnica. Retrieved 25 September 2015.
  59. ↑ KLM. "KLM's flights from Oslo to be powered by new biofuel". KLM. Retrieved 13 April 2017.
  60. ↑ KLM. "KLM to operate biofuel flights out of Los Angeles". KLM. Retrieved 13 April 2017.
  61. ↑ Bailis, R. E.; Baka, J. E. (2010). "Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Land Use Change fromJatropha Curcas-Based Jet Fuel in Brazil". Environmental Science & Technology. 44 (22): 8684–91. doi:10.1021/es1019178. PMID 20977266.

Further reading

  • "Powering the Next Generation of Flight" (PDF). Sustainable Aviation Fuels Northwest. 2011.
  • Paul Graham; et al. (May 2011). "Sustainable Aviation Fuel Road Map". CSIRO.
  • "Beginner's Guide to Aviation Biofuels". Air Transport Action Group. September 2011.
  • Adam Klauber and Isaac Toussie (Rocky Mountain Institute), Steve Csonka (Commercial Aviation Alternative Fuels Initiative), Barbara Bramble (National Wildlife Federation) (Oct 23, 2017). "Opinion: Biofuels Sustainable, Essential To Aviation's Future". Aviation Week & Space Technology.
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