Electric car

An electric car is an automobile that is propelled by one or more electric motors, using energy stored in rechargeable batteries. The first practical electric cars were produced in the 1880s.[1] Electric cars were popular in the late 19th century and early 20th century, until advances in internal combustion engines, electric starters in particular, and mass production of cheaper gasoline vehicles led to a decline in the use of electric drive vehicles.

This article is about battery electric cars. For the more general category of electric drive for all type of vehicles, see electric vehicles. For cars with electric motors and internal combustion engines, see hybrid electric vehicle. For fuel cell cars, see fuel cell vehicle.

Modern all-electric cars
Nissan Leaf
Renault Zoe
BMW i3 charging on the street
Tesla Model 3
Jaguar I-Pace
Part of a series about
Sustainable energy
Overview
Energy conservation
  • Cogeneration
  • Efficient energy use
  • Energy storage
  • Green building
  • Heat pump
  • Low-carbon power
  • Microgeneration
  • Passive solar building design
Renewable energy
Sustainable transport
  • Renewable energy portal
  • Environment portal

From 2008, a renaissance in electric vehicle manufacturing occurred due to advances in batteries, and the desire to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and improve urban air quality.[2] Several national and local governments have established government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles, tax credits, subsidies, and other incentives to promote the introduction and adoption in the mass market of new electric vehicles, often depending on battery size, their electric range and purchase price. The current maximum tax credit allowed by the US Government is US$7,500 per car.[3] Compared with internal combustion engine cars, electric cars are quieter, and have no tailpipe emissions and lower emissions in general.[4] In January 2019 and updated in April, a Reuters analysis of 29 global automakers concluded that automakers are planning on spending $300 billion over the next 5 to 10 years on electric cars, with 45% of that investment projected to occur in China.[5]

Charging an electric car can be done at a variety of charging stations, these charging stations can be installed in both houses and public areas.[6] The Tesla Model 3 was the world's best selling EV from 2018 to 2019 and had a maximum electric range of 500 km (310 miles) according to the EPA.[7][8][9]

As of December 2018, there were about 5.3 million light-duty all-electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles in use around the world.[10] Despite the rapid growth experienced, the global stock of plug-in electric cars represented just about 1 out of every 250 vehicles (0.40%) on the world's roads by the end of 2018.[11] The plug-in car market is shifting towards fully electric battery vehicles, as the global ratio between annual sales of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) rose from 56:44 in 2012, to 60:40 in 2015, and 69:31 in 2018.[12][13]

Terminology
NASA's Lunar Roving Vehicles were battery-driven
Schematic of a BEV

Electric cars are a variety of electric vehicle (EV). The term "electric vehicle" refers to any vehicle that uses electric motors for propulsion, while "electric car" generally refers to highway-capable automobiles powered by electricity. Low-speed electric vehicles, classified as NEVs in the United States,[14] and as electric motorised quadricycles in Europe,[15] are plug-in electric-powered microcars or city cars with limitations in terms of weight, power and maximum speed that are allowed to travel on public roads and city streets up to a certain posted speed limit, which varies by country.

While an electric car's power source is not explicitly an on-board battery, electric cars with motors powered by other energy sources are typically referred to by a different name. An electric car carrying solar panels to power it is a solar car, and an electric car powered by a gasoline generator is a form of hybrid car. Thus, an electric car that derives its power from an on-board battery pack is a form of battery electric vehicle (BEV). Most often, the term "electric car" is used to refer to battery electric vehicles, but may also refer to plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV).

History
Gustave Trouvé's personal electric vehicle (1881), world's first full-scale electric car to be publicly presented
Early electric car, built by Thomas Parker, photo from 1895[16]
"La Jamais Contente", 1899
The General Motors EV1, one of the cars introduced due to a California Air Resources Board (CARB) mandate, had a range of 260 km (160 miles) with NiMH batteries in 1999
The Tesla Roadster helped inspire the modern generation of electric vehicles.

The invention of the first model electric predecessor vehicle is attributed to various people.[17] In 1828, the Hungarian Ányos Jedlik invented an early type of electric motor, and created a small model car powered by his new motor. Between 1832 and 1839, the Scot Robert Anderson built a crude electric-powered carriage, powered by non-rechargeable primary power cells.[18] In 1834, Vermont blacksmith Thomas Davenport built a similar contraption which operated on a short, circular, electrified track.[19] The following year, in 1835, Professor Sibrandus Stratingh of Groningen (The Netherlands) and his assistant Christopher Becker from Germany also created a small-scale electric car, powered by non-rechargeable primary cells.[20]

Other prototypes of electric cars were probably built before, but it was not until the batteries were improved by French inventors Gaston Planté (in 1865) and Camille Faure (in 1881) that electric cars really took off.[21]

In November 1881, Gustave Trouvé presented an electric car at the Exposition internationale d'Électricité de Paris.[22]

In 1884, over 20 years before the Ford Model T, Thomas Parker built a practical production electric car in Wolverhampton using his own specially designed high-capacity rechargeable batteries, although the only documentation is a photograph from 1895 (see below).[23][24][25] The Flocken Elektrowagen of 1888 was designed by German inventor Andreas Flocken and is regarded as the first real electric car.[26][27][28] Electric cars were among the preferred methods for automobile propulsion in the late 19th century and early 20th century, providing a level of comfort and ease of operation that could not be achieved by the gasoline cars of the time.[29] The electric vehicle stock peaked at approximately 30,000 vehicles at the turn of the 20th century.[30]

In 1897, electric cars found their first commercial use as taxis in Britain and the US. In London, Walter Bersey’s electric cabs were the first self-propelled vehicles for hire at a time when cabs were horse-drawn.[31] In New York City, a fleet of twelve hansom cabs and one brougham, based on the design of the Electrobat II, were part of a project funded in part by the Electric Storage Battery Company of Philadelphia.[32] During the 20th century, the main manufacturers of electric vehicles in the US were Anthony Electric, Baker, Columbia, Anderson, Edison, Riker, Milburn, Bailey Electric, Detroit Electric and others. Unlike gasoline-powered vehicles, the electric ones were less noisy, and did not require gear changes.[33][34]

Advances in internal combustion engines (ICE) in the first decade of the 20th century lessened the relative advantages of the electric car. Their much quicker refueling times, and cheaper production costs, made them more popular. However, a decisive moment was the introduction in 1912 of the electric starter motor that replaced other, often laborious, methods of starting the ICE, such as hand-cranking.[35]

Six electric cars held the land speed record.[36] The last of them was the rocket-shaped La Jamais Contente, driven by Camille Jenatzy, which broke the 100 km/h (62 mph) speed barrier by reaching a top speed of 105.88 km/h (65.79 mph) on 29 April 1899.

Modern electric cars

The emergence of metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) technology led to the development of modern electric road vehicles.[37] The MOSFET (MOS field-effect transistor, or MOS transistor), invented by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959,[38][39] led to the development of the power MOSFET by Hitachi in 1969,[40] and the single-chip microprocessor by Federico Faggin, Marcian Hoff, Masatoshi Shima and Stanley Mazor at Intel in 1971.[41] The power MOSFET and the microcontroller, a type of single-chip microprocessor, led to significant advances in electric automobile technology. MOSFET power converters allowed operation at much higher switching frequencies, made it easier to drive, reduced power losses, and significantly reduced prices, while single-chip microcontrollers could manage all aspects of the drive control and had the capacity for battery management.[37] Another important technology that enabled modern highway-capable electric cars is the lithium-ion battery,[42] invented by John Goodenough, Rachid Yazami and Akira Yoshino in the 1980s,[43] which was responsible for the development of electric cars capable of long-distance travel.[42]

In the early 1990s, CARB began a push for more fuel-efficient, lower-emissions vehicles, with the ultimate goal being a move to zero-emissions vehicles such as electric vehicles.[44][45] In response, automakers developed electric models, including the Chrysler TEVan, Ford Ranger EV pickup truck, GM EV1, and S10 EV pickup, Honda EV Plus hatchback, Nissan Altra EV miniwagon, and Toyota RAV4 EV. Both US Electricar and Solectria produced 3-phase AC Geo-bodied electric cars with the support of GM, Hughes, and Delco. These early cars were eventually withdrawn from the U.S. market.[46]

California electric automaker Tesla Motors began development in 2004 on what would become the Tesla Roadster (2008), which was first delivered to customers in 2008. The Roadster was the first highway legal serial production all-electric car to use lithium-ion battery cells, and the first production all-electric car to travel more than 320 km (200 miles) per charge.[47]

Tesla global sales passed 250,000 units in September 2017.[48][49] The Renault–Nissan–Mitsubishi Alliance achieved the milestone of 500,000 electric vehicles sold in October 2017.[50] Tesla sold its 200,000th Model S in the fourth quarter of 2017.[51] Global Leaf sales passed 300,000 units in January 2018, keeping its record as the world's top selling plug-in electric car ever.[52] Tesla delivered its 100,000th Model 3 in October 2018.[53]

Many countries have set goals to ban the sales of gasoline- and diesel-powered vehicles in the future, notably: Norway by 2025, Denmark by 2030, China by 2030, India by 2030, Germany by 2030, France by 2040, and Britain by 2040 or 2050.[54][55][56] Similarly, more cities around the world have begun transitioning public transportation towards electric vehicles than previously was the case.[57]

In July 2019, US-based Motor Trend magazine awarded the fully electric Tesla Model S as the "ultimate car of the year".[58]

As of September 2019, the two best selling electric cars were the Nissan Leaf and the Tesla Model S, which have EPA-rated ranges reaching up to 243 km (151 miles) and 600 km (370 miles) respectively.[59][60][61] The Leaf is the best-selling highway-capable electric car ever with more than 400,000 units sold,[62] followed by the Tesla Model S with over 400,000 units sold worldwide by June 2019.[51][63][64][65][66]

Economics

Total cost of ownership

As of 2019, electric cars are less expensive to run than comparable internal combustion engine cars due to the lower cost of maintenance and energy,[67] but cost more to buy new.[68]. However, Matthew Debord states, "the cost-of-ownership analysis has to be seen as somewhat unpredictable today, mainly because ... we don’t know how much it will ultimately cost to replace batteries on ageing EVs."[69]

The greater the distance driven per year, the more likely the total cost of ownership for an electric car will be less than for an equivalent ICE car. However, this may only be achievable for EVs with adequate battery temperature regulation, which is critical for battery longevity. It also varies by country depending on the taxes and subsidies on different types of energy and car, and in some countries it may vary by city, as different cities within the country have different charges for entering the city with the same type of car; for example, the UK city of London charges ICE cars more than Birmingham does.[70]

Purchase cost

Several national and local governments have established incentives to reduce the purchase price of electric cars and other plug-ins.[71][72][73][74]

When designing an electric vehicle, manufacturers may find that for low production, converting existing platforms may be cheaper as development cost is lower, however, for higher production, a dedicated platform may be preferred to optimize design, and cost.[75]

Almost 80% of electric vehicles in the U.S. are leased, while the lease rate for the country's entire fleet is about 30%.[76] In early 2018, electric compact cars of 2014 are worth 23 percent of their original sticker price, as comparable cars with combustion engines worth 41 percent.[76]

As of 2019 the electric vehicle battery is a significant part of the total cost of the car.

Operating cost

According to a study done in 2018, examining only fuel costs, the average fueling cost of an electric vehicle in the United States is $485 per year, as opposed to an internal combustion engine's $1,117 per year. Estimated gasoline costs varied from $993 in Alabama to $1,509 in Hawaii. Electric costs varied from $372 in Washington to $1,106 in Hawaii.[77]

Manufacturing cost

The main cost driver of an electric car is its battery. The price decreased from €600 per kWh in 2010, to €170 in 2017, to €100 in 2019.[78][79]

Environmental aspects

Electric cars have several benefits over conventional internal combustion engine automobiles, including a significant reduction of local air pollution, as they do not directly emit pollutants such as particulates (soot), volatile organic compounds, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, ozone, lead, and various oxides of nitrogen.[80][81][82]

Depending on the production process and the source of the electricity to charge the vehicle, emissions may be partly shifted from cities to the material transportation, production plants and generation plants.[44] The amount of carbon dioxide emitted depends on the emissions of the electricity source, and the efficiency of the vehicle. For electricity from the grid, the emissions vary significantly depending on your region, the availability of renewable sources and the efficiency of the fossil fuel-based generation used.[83][84][85]

The same is true of ICE vehicles. The sourcing of fossil fuels (oil well to tank) causes further damage and use of resources during the extraction and refinement processes, including high amounts of electricity.

The cost of installing charging infrastructure has been estimated to be repaid by health cost savings in less than 3 years.[86]

In December 2016, Nissan reported that Leaf owners worldwide achieved the milestone of 3 billion kilometers (1.9 billion miles) driven collectively through November 2016.[87]

Lithium availability
The Salar de Uyuni in Bolivia is one of the largest known lithium reserves in the world[88][89]

It is estimated that there are sufficient lithium reserves to power 4 billion electric cars.[90][91] Most electric cars use a lithium-ion battery and an electric motor that uses rare-earth elements. The demand for lithium, heavy metals, and other elements (such as neodymium, boron and cobalt) required for the batteries and powertrain is expected to grow significantly due to the future sales increase of plug-in electric vehicles in the mid and long term.[92][93] Some of the largest world reserves of lithium and other rare metals are located in countries with strong resource nationalism, unstable governments or hostility to various overseas interests, raising concerns about the risk of replacing dependence on foreign oil with a new dependence on hostile countries to supply strategic materials.[88][92][93][94]

Performance

Acceleration and drivetrain design
Rimac Concept One, concept of electric supercar, since 2013. 0 to 100 km/h (62 mph) in 2.5 seconds, 1224 hp[95]

Electric motors can provide high power-to-weight ratios, batteries can be designed to supply the currents needed to support these motors. Electric motors have flat torque curve down to zero speed. For simplicity and reliability, many electric cars use fixed-ratio gearboxes and have no clutch.

Many electric cars have higher acceleration than average internal combustion cars, largely due to reduced drivetrain frictional losses, and the more quickly available torque of an electric motor.[96] However Neighborhood Electric Vehicles (NEVs) may have a low acceleration due to their relatively weak motors.

Electric vehicles can also use a direct motor-to-wheel configuration that increases the available power. Having motors connected directly to each wheel simplifies using the motor for both propulsion and braking, increasing traction.[97][98][99] Electric vehicles that lack an axle, differential, or transmission can have less drive-train inertia.

For example, the Venturi Fetish delivers supercar acceleration despite a relatively modest 220 kW (300 hp), and top speed of around 160 km/h (100 mph). Some DC-motor-equipped drag racer EVs have simple two-speed manual transmissions to improve top speed.[100] The 2008 Tesla Roadster 2.5 Sport can accelerate from 0 to 97 km/h (0 to 60 mph) in 3.7 seconds with a motor rated at 215 kW (288 hp).[101] Tesla Model S P100D (Performance / 100kWh / 4-wheel drive) is capable of 2.28 seconds for 0–60 mph at a price of $140,000.[102] As of May 2017, the P100D is the second quickest production car ever built, taking only 0.08 seconds longer for 0–97 km/h (0–60 mph), compared to a $847,975 Porsche 918 Spyder.[103] The concept electric supercar Rimac Concept One claims it can go from 0–97 km/h (0–60 mph) in 2.5 seconds. Tesla claims the upcoming Tesla Roadster could go 0–60 mph (0–97 km/h) in 1.9 seconds.[104]

Energy efficiency
Energy efficiency of electric cars in towns and on motorways according to the DoE.

.

Internal combustion engines have thermodynamic limits on efficiency, expressed as fraction of energy used to propel the vehicle compared to energy produced by burning fuel. Gasoline engines effectively use only 15% of the fuel energy content to move the vehicle or to power accessories, and diesel engines can reach on-board efficiency of 20%, while electric vehicles have efficiencies of 69-72%, when counted against stored chemical energy, or around 59-62%, when counted against required energy to recharge.[105][106]

Electric motors are more efficient than internal combustion engines in converting stored energy into driving a vehicle. However, they are not equally efficient at all speeds. To allow for this, some cars with dual electric motors have one electric motor with a gear optimised for city speeds and the second electric motor with a gear optimised for highway speeds. The electronics select the motor that has the best efficiency for the current speed and acceleration.[107] Regenerative braking, which is most common in electric vehicles, can recover as much as one fifth of the energy normally lost during braking.[44][105] Efficiency increases when renewable electricity is used[108]

Cabin heating and cooling

While heating can be provided with an electric resistance heater, higher efficiency and integral cooling can be obtained with a reversible heat pump. PTC junction cooling[109] is also attractive for its simplicity — this kind of system is used, for example, in the 2008 Tesla Roadster.

To avoid using part of the battery's energy for heating and thus reducing the range, some models allow the cabin to be heated while the car is plugged in. For example, the Nissan Leaf, the Mitsubishi i-MiEV, Renault Zoe and the Tesla Model S and 3 can be pre-heated while the vehicle is plugged in.[110][111][112]

Some electric cars, for example the Citroën Berlingo Electrique, use an auxiliary heating system (for example gasoline-fueled units manufactured by Webasto or Eberspächer) but sacrifice "green" and "Zero emissions" credentials. Cabin cooling can be augmented with solar power external batteries and USB fans or coolers, or by automatically allowing outside air to flow through the car when parked. Two models of the 2010 Toyota Prius include this feature as an option.[113]

Safety
Side impact test of a Tesla Model X

The safety issues of BEVs are largely dealt with by the international standard ISO 6469. This document is divided in three parts dealing with specific issues:

  • On-board electrical energy storage, i.e. the battery[114]
  • Functional safety means and protection against failures[115]
  • Protection of persons against electrical hazards[116]

Risk of fire

Like their internal combustion engine (ICE) counterparts, electric vehicle batteries can catch fire after a crash or mechanical failure.[117] Plug-in electric vehicle fire incidents have occurred, albeit less per mile than ICE vehicles.[118] The first modern crash-related fire was reported in China in May 2012, after a high-speed car crashed into a BYD e6 taxi in Shenzhen.[119] The second reported incident occurred in the United States on October 1, 2013, when a Tesla Model S caught fire over ten minutes after the electric car hit metal debris on a highway in Kent, Washington state, and the debris punctured one of 16 modules within the battery pack.[120][121] A third reported fire occurred on October 18, 2013 in Merida, Mexico. In this case the vehicle was being driven at high speed through a roundabout and crashed through a wall and into a tree. The fire broke out several minutes after the driver exited the vehicle.

In the United States, General Motors ran in several cities a training program for firefighters and first responders to demonstrate how to safely disable the Chevrolet Volt's powertrain and its 12 volt electrical system. The Volt's high-voltage system is designed to shut down automatically in the event of an airbag deployment, and to detect a loss of communication from an airbag control module.[122][123] GM also made available an Emergency Response Guide for the 2011 Volt for use by emergency responders. The guide also describes methods of disabling the high voltage system and identifies cut zone information.[124] Nissan also published a guide for first responders that details procedures for handling a damaged 2011 Leaf at the scene of an accident, including a manual high-voltage system shutdown, rather than the automatic process built-in the car's safety systems.[125][126]

Vehicle safety

The weight of the batteries themselves usually makes an EV heavier than a comparable gasoline vehicle, in a collision, the occupants of a heavy vehicle will on average, suffer fewer and less serious injuries than the occupants of a lighter vehicle; therefore, the additional weight brings safety benefits (to the occupant)[127] despite having a negative effect on the car's performance.[128] Depending on where the battery is located, it may lower the center of gravity, increasing driving stability, lowering the risk of an accident through loss of control. An accident in a 2,000 lb (900 kg) vehicle will on average cause about 50% more injuries to its occupants than a 3,000 lb (1,400 kg) vehicle.[129]

Some electric cars use low rolling resistance tires, which typically offer less grip than normal tires.[130][131][132] The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety in America had condemned the use of low speed vehicles and "mini trucks," called NEVs when powered by electric motors, on public roads.[133] Mindful of this, several companies (Tesla Motors, BMW, and Uniti) have succeeded in keeping the body light, while making it very strong.[134]

Controls

As of 2018, most electric cars have similar driving controls to that of a car with a conventional automatic transmission. Even though the motor may be permanently connected to the wheels through a fixed-ratio gear and no parking pawl may be present, the modes "P" and "N" are often still provided on the selector. In this case the motor is disabled in "N" and an electrically actuated hand brake provides the "P" mode.

In some cars the motor will spin slowly to provide a small amount of creep in "D", similar to a traditional automatic.[135]

When an internal combustion vehicle's accelerator is released, it may slow by engine braking depending on the type of transmission, and mode. An EV would coast when the accelerator is similarly released, but it may be equipped with regenerative braking that mimics a familiar response of slowing the vehicle and also recharging the battery to an extent.[136] Regenerative braking systems also decrease the use of the conventional brakes similarly as engine braking would in an internal combustion vehicle, reducing brake wear and maintenance costs.

Batteries
Prototypes of 50 watt-hour/kilogram lithium-ion polymer batteries. Newer lithium-ion cells can provide up to 130 W·h/kg and last through thousands of charging cycles.

Lithium-based batteries are often used for their high power and energy density, although they eventually wear out.[137] Other battery types, such as nickel metal hydride (NiMH), which have a poorer power-to-weight ratio than lithium ion, but are cheaper. Batteries with different chemical compositions are in development such as zinc-air battery that could be much lighter.

Range
Comparison of EPA-rated range for model year 2016 and 2017 electric cars rated up until July 2017. Tesla vehicles shown correspond to the variants with the longest and shortest range for each model.[138][139] 320 miles is 515 km, 100 miles is 161 km.
Evolution of range of new full electric car models
NIO ES8 has swappable battery pack

The range of an electric car depends on the number and type of batteries used, and as with all vehicles, the weight and type of vehicle, performance requirements, and the weather.[140]

The reported range of production electric vehicles in 2017 ranged from 100 km (60 miles) (Renault Twizy) to 540 km (340 miles) (Tesla Model S 100D).[141] Real-world range tests conducted by What Car in early 2019 found that the highest real-world range was 417 km (259 miles) (Hyundai Kona).[142]

The majority of electric cars are fitted with a display of expected range. This may take into account many factors of how the vehicle is being used, and what the battery is powering. However, since factors can vary over the route, the estimate can vary from the actual achieved range. The display allows the driver to make informed choices about driving speed and whether to stop at a charging point en route. Some roadside assistance organizations offer charge trucks to recharge electric cars in case of emergency.[143]

A study in 2016 stated that 87% of US vehicle-days could be met by current affordable electric cars.[144][145]

Charging
Main article: Charging station

Electric cars are typically charged overnight from a charging station installed in the owner's house, or from faster charging stations found in businesses and public areas.[146]

Compared to fossil fuel vehicles, the need for charging using public infrastructure is diminished because of the opportunities for home charging; vehicles can be plugged in and begin each day with a full charge, assuming the home charging station can charge quickly enough. An overnight charge of 8 hours using a 120-volt AC outlet will provide around 65 km (40 miles) of range, while a 240-volt AC outlet will provide approximately 290 km (180 miles).[147]

Charging an electric vehicle using public charging stations takes longer than refueling a fossil fuel vehicle. The speed at which a vehicle can recharge depends on the charging station's charging speed and the vehicle's own capacity to receive a charge. Connecting a vehicle that can accommodate very fast charging to a charging station with a very high rate of charge can refill the vehicle's battery to 80% in 15 minutes.[148]. Vehicles and charging stations with slower charging speeds may take as long as an hour to refill a battery to 80%. As with a mobile phone, the final 20% takes longer because the systems slow down to fill the battery safely and avoid damaging it.

Some companies have been experimenting with battery swapping to substantially reduce the effective time to recharge.[149]

Electric vehicle charging plugs are not yet universal throughout the world. Europe uses the CCS standard, while CHAdeMO is used in Japan, and a GB/T standard is used in China. The United States has no de facto standard, with a mix of CCS, Tesla Superchargers, and CHAdeMO charging stations. However vehicles using one type of plug are generally able to charge at other types of charging stations with the use of plug adapters.[150]

BYD e6 is able to recharge to 80% in 15 minutes

Hybrid vehicles
Further information: Hybrid vehicle
The BMW i3 has an optional gasoline-powered range extender engine

Some electric vehicles include small gasoline engines to extend their range in an emergency. These are considered a type of hybrid vehicle.

Lifespan
Main article: Rechargeable battery § Lifespan and cycle stability

As with all lithium-ion batteries, electric vehicle batteries may degrade over long periods of time, especially if they are frequently overcharged, however, this may take at least several years before being noticeable.[151]

However, Nissan stated in 2015 that thus far only 0.01 percent of batteries had to be replaced because of failures or problems, and then only because of externally inflicted damage. The vehicles that had already covered more than 200,000 km (124,274 mi), have no problems with the battery.[152]

Future
Autonomous park-and-charge

Volkswagen, in collaboration with six partners, is developing an EU research project that is focused on automating the parking and charging of electric vehicles. The objective of this project is to develop a smart car system that allows for autonomous driving in designated areas (e.g. valet parking, park and ride) and can offer advanced driver support in urban environments.[153] Tesla has shown interest in making an arm that automatically charges their vehicles.[154]

Other methods of energy storage

Experimental supercapacitors and flywheel energy storage devices offer comparable storage capacity, faster charging, and lower volatility. They have the potential to overtake batteries as the preferred rechargeable storage for EVs.[155][156] The FIA included their use in its sporting regulations of energy systems for Formula One race vehicles in 2007 (for supercapacitors) and 2009 (for flywheel energy storage devices).

Solar cars

Solar cars are electric vehicles powered completely or significantly by direct solar energy, usually, through photovoltaic (PV) cells contained in solar panels that convert the sun's energy directly into electric energy, usually used to charge a battery.

Electric vehicle charging patents

Qualcomm, Hyundai, Ford, and Mitsubishi are the top patent holders of the close to 800 electric vehicle charging patents filed between 2014 and 2017.[157] A majority of patents on electric vehicle charging were filed in Japan between 2014 and 2017. It is followed by the US and then by China.[158]

Infrastructure

Charging station
Charging station at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. This station is run by Petrobras and uses solar energy
Main article: charging station

Battery electric vehicles are most commonly charged from the power grid overnight at the owner's house, provided they have their own charging station. The electricity on the grid is in turn generated from a variety of sources; such as coal, hydroelectricity, nuclear and others. Power sources such as photovoltaic solar cell panels, micro hydro or wind may also be used and are promoted because of concerns regarding global warming.

Panoramic view of Tesla supercharger rapid charging station in Tejon Ranch, California

Charging stations can have a variety of different speeds of charging, with slower charging being more common for houses, and more powerful charging stations on public roads and areas for trips.[159] The BMW i3 can charge 0–80% of the battery in under 30 minutes in rapid charging mode.[160] The superchargers developed by Tesla Motors provided up to 130 kW of charging, allowing a 300-mile charge in about an hour.[161]

Connectors

Most electric cars have used conductive coupling to supply electricity for recharging after CARB settled on the SAE J1772-2001 standard[162] as the charging interface for electric vehicles in California in June 2001.[163] In Europe, the ACEA has decided to use the Type 2 connector from the range of IEC_62196 plug types for conductive charging of electric vehicles in the European Union, as the Type 1 connector (SAE J1772-2009) does not provide for three-phase charging.[164]

Another approach is inductive charging using a non-conducting "paddle" inserted into a slot in the car. Delco Electronics developed the Magne Charge inductive charging system around 1998 for the General Motors EV1 that was also used for the Chevrolet S-10 EV and Toyota RAV4 EV vehicles.

Vehicle-to-grid: uploading and grid buffering

During peak load periods, when the cost of generation can be very high, electric vehicles could contribute energy to the grid. These vehicles can then be recharged during off-peak hours at cheaper rates while helping to absorb excess night time generation. Here the batteries in the vehicles serve as a distributed storage system to buffer power.[165]

Currently available electric cars

Highway capable
The Nissan Leaf (first image) is the world's top selling highway-legal plug-in electric car ever, with over 400,000 units sold by March 2019,[62] followed by the Tesla Model S (last image), with 263,500 units as of December 2018.[51][63][64][65][66]

According to Bloomberg New Energy Finance, as of December 2018, there were almost 180 models of highway-capable all-electric passenger cars and utility vans available for retail sales globally.[166]

The Renault–Nissan–Mitsubishi Alliance is the world's leading all-electric vehicle manufacturer. Since 2010, the Alliance's global all-electric vehicle sales totaled almost 725,000 units, including those manufactured by Mitsubishi Motors through December 2018, now part of the Alliance.[167] Its best selling Nissan Leaf was the world's top selling plug-in electric car in 2013 and 2014.[168]

Tesla is the second all-time best-selling pure electric passenger car manufacturer, with over 530,000 electric cars delivered worldwide through December 2018.[169] After 10 years in the market, Tesla was the world's top selling plug-in electric passenger car manufacturer in 2018, both as a brand and by automotive group, with 245,240 units delivered representing a market share of 12% of all plug-in cars sold globally in 2018.[12][170][171] Its Model S was the world's top selling plug-in electric car in 2015 and 2016,[168][172][173][51] and its Model 3 was the world's best selling plug-in electric car in 2018.[12]

The world's all-time top selling highway legal electric car is the Nissan Leaf with global sales of over 400,000 units by March 2019,[62] followed by the Tesla Model S with global sales of 263,500 cars as of December 2018.[51][63][64][65][66] The Renault Kangoo Z.E. utility van is the leader of the light-duty all-electric segment with global sales of 38,527 units through December 2018.[174][175]

The following table lists the all-time best-selling highway-capable all-electric passenger cars with cumulative global sales of around or more than 100,000 units since their inception through December 2018:

Top selling highway-capable all-electric passenger cars produced between 2008 and December 2018(1)
ModelMarket
launch		Global salesCumulative
sales through		Sources
Since inception2018
Nissan LeafDec 2010+380,00087,149Dec 2018[12][176]
Tesla Model SJun 2012263,50450,630Dec 2018[51][63][64][65][66]
BAIC EC-SeriesDec 2016172,844(3)90,637Dec 2018[177]
Tesla Model 3Jul 2017147,819146,055Dec 2018[66][178][179][180]
Renault ZoeDec 2012133,64540,508Dec 2018[174][175]
BMW i3Nov 2013133,397(2)34,829Dec 2018[168][181][182][183][184][185]
Tesla Model XSep 2015120,73948,680Dec 2018[63][64][65][66][168][186][187][188][189]
Chery eQNov 2014~119,000(3)46,967Dec 2018[190][191][192]
Notes:
(1) Vehicles are considered highway-capable if able to achieve at least a top speed of 100 km/h (62 mph).
(2) BMW i3 sales includes the REx variant (split is not available). (3) Sales in main China only.

Retrofitted electric vehicles

Any car can be converted to an electric vehicle using plug and play kits of making custom solutions. The conversion of internal combustion engine cars to electric cars is called Retrofitted Electric Vehicles.

Electric cars by country
Main article: electric car use by country

Global sales of highway legal plug-in electric passenger cars and light utility vehicles achieved the one million milestone in September 2015, almost twice as fast as hybrid electric vehicles (HEV).[193][194] Cumulative global sales of light-duty all-electric vehicles reached one million units in September 2016.[195][196]

Cumulative global sales of plug-in passenger cars passed 2 million in December 2016,[197] the 3 million mark in November 2017,[198] and the 5 million milestone in December 2018.[10] Despite the rapid growth experienced, the global stock of plug-in electric cars represented just about 1 out of every 250 vehicles (0.40%) on the world's roads by the end of 2018.[11] As of December 2018, the global stock of pure electric passenger cars and light commercial vehicles (utility vans) totaled about 3.45 million units, representing 65% of all light-duty plug-in vehicles on the world's roads.[10][199]

All-electric cars have oversold plug-in hybrids for several years, and by the end of 2018, the plug-in market continues to shift towards fully electric battery vehicles. The global ratio between annual sales of battery BEVs and PHEVs went from 56:44 in 2012, to 60:40 in 2015, and rose to 69:31 in 2018.[12][13]

Annual sales of plug-in electric passenger cars in the world's top markets between 2011 and 2018[200][199][201][202]
Evolution of the ratio between global sales of BEVs and PHEVs between 2011 and 2018.[12][13]

Government subsidy
Main article: government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles
A car park in Oslo
Electric car used by the municipality of Utrecht, Netherlands

As of 2018, 49.1% of all cars sold in Norway were electric vehicles, making Norway the country with the highest plug-in car market share in the world.[203]]] Several countries have established grants and tax credits for the purchase of new electric cars, often depending on battery size. The U.S. offers a federal income tax credit up to US$7,500,[74] and several states have additional incentives.[204] The UK offers a Plug-in Car Grant up to a maximum of GB£4,500 (US$5,929).[205] The U.S. government also pledged US$2.4 billion in federal grants for the development of advanced technologies for electric cars and batteries,[206] despite the fact that overall sales are not increasing at the expected rate.[207]

As of April 2011, 15 European Union member states provide economic incentives for the purchase of new electrically chargeable vehicles, which consist of tax reductions and exemptions, as well as of bonus payments for buyers of all-electric and plug-in hybrid vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles, and some alternative fuel vehicles.[208][209]

EV plans from major manufacturers


Volkswagen ID.3
Mazda MX-30
Ford Mustang Mach-E

Volkswagen plans 27 electric vehicles by 2022, on a dedicated EV platform dubbed "Modular Electric Toolkit" and initialed as MEB.[210] Ford will use Volkswagen's Modular Electric Toolkit to design and build its own fully electric vehicles starting in 2023.[211]

Toyota has developed a global EV platform named e-TNGA that can accommodate a three-row SUV, sporty sedan, small crossover or a boxy compact.[212] Toyota and Subaru will release a new EV on a shared platform.[213] It will be about the size of a Subaru Forester or Toyota RAV4.

As of March 2019, BMW plans 12 all electric vehicles by 2025, using a fifth-generation electric powertrain architecture, which will save weight and cost and increase capacity.[214] BMW has ordered €10 billion worth of battery cells valid from 2021 through 2030.[215][216][217]

Mercedes plans to invest $23 billion on battery cells through 2030 and have 10 all electric vehicles by 2022.[218][219]

In January 2019, GM announced that it plans to make Cadillac its lead electric vehicle brand starting in 2021.[220] GM's “BEV3” next-generation electric vehicle platform is designed to be flexible for use in many different vehicle types, such as front, rear and all-wheel drive configurations.[221]

Ford is planning to release an electric F-150 in the 2021 time frame.[222][223] The Ford Mustang Mach-E, is an electric crossover and with the extended battery range will reach 340 km (210 miles) and up to 480 km (300 miles) if equipped with the rear wheel drive option.[224]

Infiniti announced that by 2021 all newly introduced vehicles will be electric or hybrid.[225]

On 23 October 2019, Hyundai announced it plans 16 new electric vehicles by 2025.[226]

Psychological barriers to adoption

For the past century, most people have driven internal combustion engine (ICE) cars, making them feel common, familiar, and low risk.[227] Even though EV technology has been around for over a century and modern EVs have been on the market for decades, multiple studies show that various psychological factors impair EV adoption.

Range anxiety

Gary L. Brase's 2019 study found that the dominant fear hindering EV adoption was range anxiety.[228] ICE car drivers are accustomed to going on trips without having to plan refueling stops, and may worry that an EV will lack the range to reach their destination or the closest charging station.[229] Range anxiety has been shown to diminish among drivers who have gained familiarity and experience with EVs.[229]

Identity concerns

Brase's study also found that people view driving an EV as an action taken by those with “stronger attitudes in favor of environmental and energy security” or by those that are “attracted to the novelty and status associated with being among the first to adopt new technology”.[228] Thus, people may be resistant to EV ownership if they do not consider themselves environmentalists or early adopters of new technology, or do not want others to think of them in this way.

The perceived value associated with driving an EV can also differ by gender. In a 2019 survey conducted in Norway, it was found that people believe women drive EVs for sustainability purposes while men drive EVs for the new technology.[230] The thought process behind this stereotype is that “big and expensive cars are driven by men, while women drive smaller, less valuable cars”.[230] Since the reasons behind adopting EVs have a gendered component, it can be argued that some fear driving an EV will result in a disconnect between their gender identity and how they are perceived by others.

See also
  • Electric aircraft
  • Electric boat
  • Electric bus
  • Electric car energy efficiency
  • Electric motorcycles and scooters
  • Electric motorsport
  • Electric vehicle warning sounds
  • Battery electric vehicle
  • Formula E
  • List of electric cars currently available
  • Solar car
  • Vehicle electrification

References
  1. Roth, Hans (March 2011). Das erste vierrädrige Elektroauto der Welt [The first four-wheeled electric car in the world] (in German). pp. 2–3.
  2. David B. Sandalow, ed. (2009). Plug-In Electric Vehicles: What Role for Washington? (1st. ed.). The Brookings Institution. pp. 1–6. ISBN 978-0-8157-0305-1.See Introduction
  3. "Electric Vehicles: Tax Credits and Other Incentives". Department of Energy. US. Retrieved 8 February 2018.
  4. "Reducing Pollution with Electric Vehicles". www.energy.gov. Retrieved 12 May 2018.
  5. "Charged". Reuters. Retrieved 21 October 2019.
  6. "How to charge an electric car". Carbuyer. Retrieved 22 April 2018.
  7. O'Kane, Sean (22 February 2019). "Tesla's Model 3 was the best-selling EV in the world last year". The Verge. Retrieved 15 December 2019.
  8. "2019 Tesla Model 3 Long Range". www.fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 15 December 2019.
  9. "Tesla Model 3 Equals 1/8 Of World's EV Sales In 2019". CleanTechnica. 6 December 2019. Retrieved 15 December 2019.
  10. Watson, Frank (11 February 2019). "December global electric vehicle sales set new record: S&P Global Platts data". S&P Global Platts. London. Retrieved 11 February 2019. At the end of 2018, some 5.3 million plug-in EVs were on the road A total of 1.45 million light-duty pure electric vehicles were sold in 2018.
  11. Coren, Michael J. (25 January 2019). "E-nough? Automakers may have completely overestimated how many people want electric cars". Quartz. Retrieved 25 January 2019. The plug-in electric car segment represented just about 1 out of every 250 vehicles on the world's roads by the end of 2018
  12. Jose, Pontes (31 January 2019). "Global Top 20 - December 2018". EVSales.com. Retrieved 31 January 2019. "Global sales totaled 2,018,247 plug-in passenger cars in 2018, with a BEV:PHEV ratio of 69:31, and a market share of 2.1%. The world's top selling plug-in car was the Tesla Model 3, and Tesla was the top selling manufacturer of plug-in passenger cars in 2018, followed by BYD."
  13. Hertzke, Patrick; Müller, Nicolai; Schenk, Stephanie; Wu, Ting (May 2018). "The global electric-vehicle market is amped up and on the rise". McKinsey. Retrieved 27 January 2019. See Exhibit 1: Global electric-vehicle sales, 2010-17.
  14. "US DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION National Highway Traffic Safety Administration 49 CFR Part 571 Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards". Retrieved 6 August 2009.
  15. "Citizens' summary EU proposal for a Regulation on L-category vehicles (two- or three-wheel vehicles and quadricycles)" (PDF).
  16. "Elwell-Parker, Limited". Retrieved 17 February 2016.
  17. Guarnieri, M. (2012). "Looking back to electric cars". Proc. HISTELCON 2012 - 3rd Region-8 IEEE HISTory of Electro - Technology CONference: The Origins of Electrotechnologies: 1–6. doi:10.1109/HISTELCON.2012.6487583. ISBN 978-1-4673-3078-7.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  18. Bellis, Mary (23 March 2019). "Wait, There Were Electric Cars Between 1830 and 1930?". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 12 November 2019.
  19. Today in Technology History: July 6, The Center for the Study of Technology and Science, archived from the original on 15 October 2009, retrieved 14 July 2009
  20. "Het wagentje van Stratingh". University of Groningen (in Dutch). 5 June 2019. Retrieved 27 January 2020.
  21. "L'Histoire de la voiture electrique" [The history of the electric car] (in French). France: Voiture Electrique. Retrieved 1 October 2019.
  22. Wakefield, Ernest H (1994). History of the Electric Automobile. Society of Automotive Engineers. pp. 2–3. ISBN 1-5609-1299-5.
  23. Guarnieri, M. (2012). Looking back to electric cars. Proc. HISTELCON 2012 – 3rd Region-8 IEEE HISTory of Electro – Technology Conference: The Origins of Electrotechnologies. pp. 1–6. doi:10.1109/HISTELCON.2012.6487583. ISBN 978-1-4673-3078-7.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  24. "Electric Car History". Archived from the original on 5 January 2014. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
  25. "World's first electric car built by Victorian inventor in 1884". The Daily Telegraph. London. 24 April 2009. Retrieved 14 July 2009.
  26. Boyle, David (2018). 30-Second Great Inventions. Ivy Press. p. 62. ISBN 9781782406846.
  27. Denton, Tom (2016). Electric and Hybrid Vehicles. Routledge. p. 6. ISBN 9781317552512.
  28. "Elektroauto in Coburg erfunden" [Electric car invented in Coburg]. Neue Presse Coburg (in German). Germany. 12 January 2011. Retrieved 30 September 2019.
  29. "Electric automobile". Encyclopædia Britannica (online). Retrieved 2 May 2014.
  30. Justin Gerdes (11 May 2012). "The Global Electric Vehicle Movement: Best Practices From 16 Cities". Forbes. Retrieved 20 October 2014.
  31. Says, Alan Brown. "The Surprisingly Old Story Of London's First Ever Electric Taxi". Science Museum Blog. Retrieved 23 October 2019.
  32. Handy, Galen (2014). "History of Electric Cars". US: The Edison Tech Center. Retrieved 7 September 2017.
  33. "Some Facts about Electric Vehicles". Automobilesreview. 25 February 2012. Retrieved 6 October 2017.
  34. Gertz, Marisa; Grenier, Melinda (5 January 2019). "171 Years Before Tesla: The Evolution of Electric Vehicles". Bloomberg. US. Retrieved 30 September 2019.
  35. Laukkonen, J.D. (1 October 2013). "History of the Starter Motor". Crank Shift. US. Retrieved 30 September 2019.
  36. Cub Scout Car Show (PDF), January 2008, retrieved 12 April 2009
  37. Gosden, D.F. (March 1990). "Modern Electric Vehicle Technology using an AC Motor Drive". Journal of Electrical and Electronics Engineering. Institution of Engineers Australia. 10 (1): 21–7. ISSN 0725-2986.
  38. "1960 - Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated". The Silicon Engine. Computer History Museum.
  39. "Who Invented the Transistor?". Computer History Museum. 4 December 2013. Retrieved 20 July 2019.
  40. Oxner, E. S. (1988). Fet Technology and Application. CRC Press. p. 18. ISBN 9780824780500.
  41. "1971: Microprocessor Integrates CPU Function onto a Single Chip". The Silicon Engine. Computer History Museum. Retrieved 22 July 2019.
  42. Scrosati, Bruno; Garche, Jurgen; Tillmetz, Werner (2015). Advances in Battery Technologies for Electric Vehicles. Woodhead Publishing. ISBN 9781782423980.
  43. "IEEE Medal for Environmental and Safety Technologies Recipients". IEEE Medal for Environmental and Safety Technologies. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. Retrieved 29 July 2019.
  44. Sperling, Daniel; Gordon, Deborah (2009). Two billion cars: driving toward sustainability. Oxford University Press. pp. 22–26. ISBN 978-0-19-537664-7.
  45. Boschert, Sherry (2006). Plug-in Hybrids: The Cars that will Recharge America. New Society Publishers. pp. 15–28. ISBN 978-0-86571-571-4.
  46. See Who Killed the Electric Car? (2006)
  47. Shahan, Zachary (26 April 2015). "Electric Car Evolution". Clean Technica. Retrieved 8 September 2016. 2008: The Tesla Roadster becomes the first production electric vehicle to use lithium-ion battery cells as well as the first production electric vehicle to have a range of over 200 miles on a single charge.
  48. Kane, Mark (4 October 2017). "Tesla Has Delivered More Than 250,000 EVs, ~55% In The U.S." InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 6 October 2017.
  49. "_Update_Letter_2017-3Q.pdf Tesla Third Quarter 2017 Update". Tesla. 1 November 2017. Archived from the original on 11 January 2018. Retrieved 10 January 2018.
  50. Sasia, Caroline (17 October 2017). "Renault-Nissan-Mitsubishi Sponsors Women's Forum Global Meeting". Alliance Renault-Nissan-Mitsubishi. Retrieved 23 January 2018. During the Global Meeting, the Alliance, which recently reached the historic milestone of aggregate sales of 500,000 electric vehicles worldwide (Renault-Nissan-Mitsubishi).
  51. Cobb, Jeff (22 January 2018). "Tesla Quietly Sold 200,000th Model S Last Year". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 23 January 2018. "Tesla sold its 200,000 Model S in the fourth quarter of 2017, in October or early November, becoming the second plug-in car to cross this sales threshold after the Nissan Leaf (300,000 units by early 2017). As of December 2017, Tesla reported global sales of 212,874 Model S cars."
  52. "Nissan delivers 300,000th Nissan LEAF" (Press release). Yokohama: Nissan. 8 January 2018. Retrieved 14 January 2018.
  53. Halvorson, Bengt (8 November 2018). "Finalist for Green Car Reports Best Car To Buy 2019: Tesla Model 3". Green Car Reports. Retrieved 9 November 2018.
  54. Riley, Charles. "Britain bans gasoline and diesel cars starting in 2040". CNNMoney. Retrieved 18 May 2018.
  55. "Germany calls for a ban on combustion engine cars by 2030". Engadget. Retrieved 18 May 2018.
  56. Petroff, Alanna. "These countries want to ditch gas and diesel cars". CNNMoney. Retrieved 18 May 2018.
  57. Forrest, Adam (13 April 2017). "The death of diesel: has the one-time wonder fuel become the new asbestos?". The Guardian. UK. Retrieved 27 June 2018.
  58. Evans, Scott (10 July 2019). "2013 Tesla Model S Beats Chevy, Toyota, and Cadillac for Ultimate Car of the Year Honors". MotorTrend. US. Retrieved 17 July 2019. We are confident that, were we to summon all the judges and staff of the past 70 years, we would come to a rapid consensus: No vehicle we've awarded, be it Car of the Year, Import Car of the Year, SUV of the Year, or Truck of the Year, can equal the impact, performance, and engineering excellence that is our Ultimate Car of the Year winner, the 2013 Tesla Model S.
  59. "2018 Nissan Leaf electric car gets 151-mile EPA range rating". Green Car Reports. Retrieved 22 April 2018.
  60. "The Longest-Range Electric Vehicle Now Goes Even Farther". www.tesla.com. 23 April 2019. Retrieved 17 June 2019.
  61. "2019 Tesla Model S Long Range vs. 2013 Model S 85: How do they compare in value?". Green Car Reports. Retrieved 17 June 2019.
  62. "Nissan LEAF first electric car to pass 400,000 sales" (Press release). Yokohama: Nissan. 5 March 2019. Retrieved 6 March 2019.
  63. "Tesla Q1 2018 Vehicle Production and Deliveries". Palo Alto: Tesla. 3 April 2018. Retrieved 2 September 2018. Q1 deliveries totaled 11,730 Model S cars and 10,070 Model X.
  64. "Tesla Second Quarter 2018 Delivery". Palo Alto: Tesla. 2 July 2018. Retrieved 2 September 2018. Q2 deliveries totaled 10,930 Model S cars and 11,370 Model X.
  65. "Tesla Q3 2018 Vehicle Production and Deliveries". Palo Alto: Tesla. 2 October 2018. Retrieved 20 October 2018. Q3 deliveries totaled 55,840 Model 3 cars, 14,470 Model S, and 13,190 Model X.
  66. "Tesla Fourth Quarter 2018 Delivery". Palo Alto: Tesla. 5 January 2019. Retrieved 7 January 2019. Q4 deliveries grew to 90,700 vehicles, which was 8% more than our prior all time-high in Q3. This included 63,150 Model 3 (13% growth over Q3), 13,500 Model S, and 14,050 Model X vehicles. In 2018, we delivered a total of 245,240 vehicles: 145,846 Model 3 and 99,394 Model S and X.
  67. Carrington, Damian (2 December 2017). "Electric cars already cheaper to own and run than petrol or diesel – study". The Guardian. UK. Retrieved 24 April 2018.
  68. Schmidt, Bridie (25 July 2018). "EV vs ICE: The cost gap that is holding Australia back". RenewEconomy. Australia. Retrieved 11 October 2018.
  69. Debord, Matthew (12 January 2018). "Everyone is making the same big mistake about electric cars". Business Insider. Australia. Retrieved 11 October 2018.
  70. "Birmingham clean air charge: What you need to know". BBC. 13 March 2019.
  71. "Fact Sheet – Japanese Government Incentives for the Purchase of Environmentally Friendly Vehicles" (PDF). Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 December 2010. Retrieved 24 December 2010.
  72. Motavalli, Jim (2 June 2010). "China to Start Pilot Program, Providing Subsidies for Electric Cars and Hybrids". The New York Times. Retrieved 2 June 2010.
  73. "Growing Number of EU Countries Levying CO2 Taxes on Cars and Incentivizing Plug-ins". Green Car Congress. 21 April 2010. Retrieved 23 April 2010.
  74. "Notice 2009–89: New Qualified Plug-in Electric Drive Motor Vehicle Credit". Internal Revenue Service. 30 November 2009. Retrieved 1 April 2010.
  75. Ward, Jonathan (28 April 2017). "EV supply chains: Shifting currents". Automotive Logistics. Archived from the original on 3 August 2017. Retrieved 13 May 2017.
  76. Stock, Kyle (3 January 2018). "Why early EV adopters prefer leasing — by far". Automotive News. Retrieved 5 February 2018.
  77. McMahon, Jeff. "Electric Vehicles Cost Less Than Half As Much To Drive". Forbes. Retrieved 18 May 2018.
  78. "Trotz fallender Batteriekosten bleiben E-Mobile teuer" [Despite falling battery costs electric cars remain expensive]. Umwelt Dialog (in German). Germany. 31 July 2018. Retrieved 12 March 2019.
  79. Hauri, Stephan (8 March 2019). "Wir arbeiten mit Hochdruck an der Brennstoffzelle" [We are working hard on the fuel cell]. Neue Zürcher Zeitung (in German). Switzerland. Retrieved 12 March 2019.
  80. "Should Pollution Factor Into Electric Car Rollout Plans?". Earth2tech.com. 17 March 2010. Retrieved 18 April 2010.
  81. "Electro Automotive: FAQ on Electric Car Efficiency & Pollution". Electroauto.com. Retrieved 18 April 2010.
  82. Raut, Anil K. "Role of electric vehicles in reducing air pollution: a case of Katmandu, Nepal". The Clean Air Initiative. Archived from the original on 14 September 2016. Retrieved 4 January 2011. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  83. "CO2 Intensity". Eirgrid. Archived from the original on 4 May 2011. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
  84. Buekers, J; Van Holderbeke, M; Bierkens, J; Int Panis, L (2014). "Health and environmental benefits related to electric vehicle introduction in EU countries". Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment. 33: 26–38. doi:10.1016/j.trd.2014.09.002. ISSN 1361-9209.
  85. Clark, Duncan (17 July 2009). "Real-time "CO2 intensity" site makes the case for midnight dishwashing". Guardian. London. Retrieved 12 December 2010.
  86. "Electric car switch on for health benefits". UK: Inderscience Publishers. 16 May 2019. Retrieved 1 June 2019.
  87. "New Nissan Electric Café opens in Paris as the brand celebrates three billion EV kilometres worldwide" (Press release). Paris: Nissan Newsroom Europe. 16 December 2016. Retrieved 17 December 2016.
  88. Simon Romero (2 February 2009). "In Bolivia, Untapped Bounty Meets Nationalism". The New York Times. Retrieved 28 February 2010.
  89. "Página sobre el Salar (Spanish)". Evaporiticosbolivia.org. Archived from the original on 23 March 2011. Retrieved 27 November 2010.
  90. "Learn About Lithium – In 10 Bullet Points". ElectroVelocity. 13 December 2010. Retrieved 3 January 2011.
  91. Smith, Michael (7 December 2009). "Lithium for 4.8 Billion Electric Cars Lets Bolivia Upset Market". Bloomberg. Retrieved 3 January 2011.
  92. Mintzer, Irving (2009). "Look Before You Leap: Exploring the Implications of Advanced Vehicles for Import Dependence and Passenger Safety" (PDF). In David B. Sandalow (ed.). Plug-in Electric Vehicles: What Role for Washington?. The Brookings Institution. pp. 107–126. ISBN 978-0-8157-0305-1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 May 2016. Retrieved 10 May 2014.
  93. Clifford Krauss (9 March 2009). "The Lithium Chase". The New York Times. Retrieved 10 March 2010.
  94. Jerry Garret (15 April 2010). "A Case for and Against Electric Cars". The New York Times. Retrieved 17 April 2010.
  95. "Concept One – The Supercar of the Future. Today". Rimac. Rimac. Retrieved 24 June 2017.
  96. "Gas-powered vs. Electric Cars: Which Is Faster?". How Stuff Works. 15 January 2019.
  97. Contact Wes Siler: Comment Email Facebook Twitter (13 April 2010). "Helsinki Metropolia University's RaceAbout". Jalopnik.com. Retrieved 6 December 2011.
  98. Spinelli, Mike (5 October 2007). "Nissan Pivo 2". Jalopnik.com. Retrieved 6 December 2011.
  99. "Charles Perry's Plug-In Hybrid Retrofit Kit". Gizmag.com. Retrieved 6 December 2011.
  100. Hedlund, R. (November 2008). "The Roger Hedlund 100 MPH Club". National Electric Drag Racing Association. Retrieved 25 April 2009.
  101. "Roadster Sport 2.5 Specifications". Tesla. Archived from the original on 12 February 2013. Retrieved 1 February 2013.
  102. "Design Your Model S". Tesla. Retrieved 30 September 2019.
  103. Gall, Jared (December 2013). "2015 Porsche 918 Spyder". Car and Driver. US. Retrieved 11 May 2017.
  104. DeBord, Matthew (17 November 2017). "The new Tesla Roadster can do 0-60 mph in less than 2 seconds — and that's just the base version". Business Insider. Retrieved 22 April 2019.
  105. Shah, Saurin D. (2009). "2". Plug-In Electric Vehicles: What Role for Washington? (1st ed.). The Brookings Institution. pp. 29, 37 and 43. ISBN 978-0-8157-0305-1.
  106. "Electric Car Myth Buster — Efficiency". CleanTechnica. 10 March 2018. Retrieved 18 April 2019.
  107. Sensiba, Jennifer (23 July 2019). "EV Transmissions Are Coming, And It's A Good Thing". CleanTechnica. Retrieved 23 July 2019.
  108. "Energy Efficiency of Tesla Electric Vehicles". Tesla Motors. Retrieved 25 April 2009.
  109. US, "Electrical PTC heating device"
  110. NativeEnergy (7 September 2012). "3 Electric Car Myths That Will Leave You Out in the Cold". Recyclebank. Retrieved 21 July 2013.
  111. Piotrowski, Ed (3 January 2013). "How i Survived the Cold Weather". The Daily Drive – Consumer Guide Automotive. Retrieved 21 July 2013.
  112. "Effects of Winter on Tesla Battery Range and Regen". teslarati.com. 24 November 2014. Retrieved 21 February 2015.
  113. "2010 Options and Packages". Toyota Prius. Toyota. Retrieved 9 July 2009.
  114. "ISO 6469-1:2019 Electrically propelled road vehicles — Safety specifications — Part 1: Rechargeable energy storage system (RESS)". ISO. April 2019. Retrieved 21 November 2019.
  115. "ISO 6469-2:2018 Electrically propelled road vehicles — Safety specifications — Part 2: Vehicle operational safety". ISO. February 2018. Retrieved 22 November 2019.
  116. "ISO 6469-3:2018 Electrically propelled road vehicles — Safety specifications — Part 3: Electrical safety". ISO. October 2018. Retrieved 22 November 2019.
  117. Spotnitz, R.; Franklin, J. (2003). "Abuse behavior of high-power, lithium-ion cells". Journal of Power Sources. 113 (1): 81–100. Bibcode:2003JPS...113...81S. doi:10.1016/S0378-7753(02)00488-3. ISSN 0378-7753.
  118. "Roadshow: Electric cars not as likely to catch fire as gas-powered vehicles". The Mercury News. 29 March 2018. Retrieved 12 May 2018.
  119. China Autoweb (28 May 2012). "Initial details on fiery crash involving BYD e6 that killed 3". Green Car Congress. Retrieved 13 August 2012.
  120. Jensen, Christopher (2 October 2013). "Tesla Says Car Fire Started in Battery". The New York Times. Retrieved 5 October 2013.
  121. Russolillo, Steven (4 October 2013). "Musk Explains Why Tesla Model S Caught on Fire". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 5 October 2013.
  122. General Motors (19 January 2011). "Detroit First Responders Get Electric Vehicle Safety Training". General Motors News. Retrieved 12 November 2011.
  123. "General Motors Kicks Off National Electric Vehicle Training Tour For First Responders". Green Car Congress. 27 August 2010. Retrieved 11 November 2011.
  124. General Motors (31 March 2011). "First Responder Vehicle Guides". U.S. Fire Administration. Archived from the original on 19 October 2011. Retrieved 12 November 2011.
  125. AOL Autos (16 December 2011). "Chevy Volt Unplugged: When To Depower Your EV After a Crash". Translogic. Retrieved 20 December 2011.
  126. Nissan (2010). "2011 LEAF First Responder's Guide" (PDF). Nissan North America. Retrieved 20 December 2011.
  127. National Research Council; Transportation Research Board; Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences; Board on Energy and Environmental Systems; Committee on the Effectiveness and Impact of Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standards (2002). Effectiveness and Impact of Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standards. National Academies Press. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-309-07601-2.
  128. Ehsani, Mehrdad; Gao, Yimin; Gay, Sebastien E.; Emadi, Ali (2004). Modern Electric, Hybrid Electric, and Fuel Cell Vehicles: Fundamentals, Theory, and Design. Taylor & Francis. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-8493-3154-1.
  129. "Vehicle Weight, Fatality Risk and Crash Compatibility of Model Year 1991–99 Passenger Cars and Light Trucks" (PDF). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. October 2003. Retrieved 25 April 2009.
  130. "Low-rolling-resistance tires". Consumer Reports. November 2007. Archived from the original on 19 April 2009. Retrieved 25 April 2009. (subscription required for full access)
  131. Crowe, Paul (21 July 2008). "Low Rolling Resistance Tires Save Gas". HorsePower Sports. Retrieved 25 April 2009.
  132. "Planned EU Requirements for Tires Would Reduce Road Traffic Safety". Continental AG. 12 November 2007. Retrieved 7 December 2011.
  133. Shunk, Chris (21 May 2010). "IIHS condemns use of mini trucks and low-speed vehicles on public roads". autoblog.com. Retrieved 15 October 2010.
  134. "Inside Uniti's plan to build the iPhone of EVs". GreenMotor.co.uk. Retrieved 26 June 2017.
  135. "Ford Focus BEV – Road test". Autocar.co.uk. Retrieved 3 January 2011.
  136. Lampton, Christopher (23 January 2009). "How Regenerative Braking Works". HowStuffWorks.com. Retrieved 21 November 2019.
  137. "Why Your Gadgets' Batteries Degrade". Popular Mechanics. 25 April 2012. Retrieved 3 September 2018.
  138. Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy, U.S. Department of Energy and U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (24 March 2017). "Find a car – Years: 2016–2017 – Vehicle Type: Electric". fueleconomy.gov. Retrieved 26 March 2017.
  139. Krok, Andrew (29 July 2017). "By the numbers: Tesla Model 3 vs. Chevrolet Bolt EV". CNET. Retrieved 29 July 2017.
  140. Liasi, Sahand Ghaseminejad; Golkar, Masoud Aliakbar (2 May 2017). Electric vehicles connection to microgrid effects on peak demand with and without demand response. 2017 Iranian Conference. IEEE. pp. 1272–1277. doi:10.1109/IranianCEE.2017.7985237.
  141. "Tesla Quietly Introduces Longest-Range Electric Car on the Market". Fortune. Retrieved 20 May 2018.
  142. Huntingford, Steve (20 April 2019). "What Car? Real Range: which electric car can go farthest in the real world?". What Car?. UK. Retrieved 24 June 2019.
  143. Lambert, Fred (6 September 2016). "AAA says that its emergency electric vehicle charging trucks served "thousands" of EVs without power". Electrek. US. Retrieved 6 September 2016.
  144. Ferris, Robert (17 August 2016). "Electric cars good enough for 90 percent of trips". CNBC. Retrieved 17 August 2016.
  145. Needell, Zachary A.; McNerney, James; Chang, Michael T.; Trancik, Jessika E. (31 December 2015). "Potential for widespread electrification of personal vehicle travel in the United States : Nature Energy" (PDF). Nature Energy. 1 (9). doi:10.1038/nenergy.2016.112. ISSN 2058-7546.
  146. "Thinking of buying an electric vehicle? Here's what you need to know about charging". USA Today. Retrieved 20 May 2018.
  147. "Electric Vehicle Charging: Types, Time, Cost and Savings". Union of Concerned Scientists. 9 March 2018. Retrieved 30 November 2018.
  148. "Electric Cars - everything you need to know » EFTM". EFTM. 2 April 2019. Retrieved 3 April 2019.
  149. "Could Battery Swapping Ease Range Anxiety for EV Owners?". Machine Design. 19 July 2016. Retrieved 20 May 2018.
  150. "Diginow Super Charger V2 opens up Tesla destination chargers to other EVs". Autoblog. Retrieved 3 September 2018.
  151. "Understanding the life of lithium ion batteries in electric vehicles". Retrieved 3 September 2018.
  152. "Elektroauto: Elektronik-Geeks sind die Oldtimer-Schrauber von morgen" [Elektroauto: Electronics geeks are the classic car screwdrivers of tomorrow]. Zeit Online (in German). Germany. Retrieved 22 February 2016.
  153. "VCharge". Oxford Robotics Institute. Retrieved 6 March 2018.
  154. "Tesla's prehensile car charger plugs itself in automatically". Engadget. Retrieved 20 May 2018.
  155. Hively, Will (August 1996), "Reinventing the wheel – A flywheel may be the key to a car that's both powerful and efficient", Discover, retrieved 24 April 2009
  156. Schindall, Joel (November 2007). "The Charge of the Ultra – Capacitors Nanotechnology takes energy storage beyond batteries". IEEE Spectrum. Retrieved 12 August 2010.
  157. "Electric Vehicle Charging Technology Insights | Patent Landscape". Netscribes. 6 March 2018. Retrieved 6 March 2018.
  158. "The Future of Electric Vehicle Charging | Netscribes". www.netscribes.com. Retrieved 6 March 2018.
  159. "Alternative Fuels Data Center: Developing Infrastructure to Charge Plug-In Electric Vehicles". www.afdc.energy.gov. Retrieved 3 September 2018.
  160. "Charging time for the BMW i3". UK: BMW. Archived from the original on 21 September 2013. Retrieved 12 September 2013.
  161. Popely, Rick (9 November 2013). "How Quickly does the tesla model S battery charge?". Cars.com.
  162. "Rulemaking: 2001-06-26 Updated and Informative Digest ZEV Infrastructure and Standardization" (PDF). title 13, California Code of Regulations. California Air Resources Board. 13 May 2002. Retrieved 23 May 2010. Standardization of Charging Systems
  163. "ARB Amends ZEV Rule: Standardizes Chargers & Addresses Automaker Mergers" (Press release). California Air Resources Board. 28 June 2001. Retrieved 23 May 2010. the ARB approved the staff proposal to select the conductive charging system used by Ford, Honda and several other manufacturers
  164. "ACEA position and recommendations for the standardization of the charging of electrically chargeable vehicles" (PDF). ACEA Brussels. 14 June 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 July 2011.
  165. "Groupe Renault begins large-scale vehicle-to-grid charging pilot". Renewable Energy Magazine. 22 March 2019.
  166. Stock, Kyle (18 December 2018). "In the Switch to Electric Vehicles, Expect a Few Giants to Crash". Bloomberg. Retrieved 15 January 2019. Move the pointing device over the graph "Models for sale Globally" - Figure reported is for 4Q 2018.
  167. "Alliance members achieve combined sales of 10.76 million units in 2018". Groupe Renault Media (Press release). Paris. 30 January 2019. Retrieved 2 February 2019. As of December 2018, a total of 724,905 electric vehicles have been sold by the Alliance since 2010.
  168. Cobb, Jeff (26 January 2017). "Tesla Model S Is World's Best-Selling Plug-in Car For Second Year In A Row". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 26 January 2017. See also detailed 2016 sales and cumulative global sales in the two graphs.
  169. Kane, Mark (2 January 2019). "Tesla Production And Deliveries Graphed Through Q4 2018". InsideEVs.com. Retrieved 2 January 2019.
  170. Jose, Pontes (3 February 2019). "2018 Global Sales by OEM". EVSales.com. Retrieved 3 February 2019. "Tesla led plug-in car sales among automotive groups in 2018, with 245,240 units delivered, followed by BYD with 229,338, and the Renault-Nissan Alliance with 192,711."
  171. "BMW sells over 140,000 plug-in cars throughout 2018". electricdrive.com. 10 January 2019. Retrieved 14 January 2019. The global share of plug-in electric cars by brand in 2018 was led by Tesla with 12%, followed by BYD with 11%, BMW with 9%, BAIC with 6%, and Roewe and Nissan, both with 5%.
  172. Sharan, Zachary (4 February 2017). "Tesla Model S & Nissan LEAF Clocked As World's Best-Selling Electric Cars In 2016". EV Volumes. CleanTechnica.com. Retrieved 4 February 2017.
  173. Cobb, Jeff (12 January 2016). "Tesla Model S Was World's Best-Selling Plug-in Car in 2015". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 23 January 2016.
  174. Groupe Renault (January 2017). "Ventes Mensuelles" [Monthly Sales] (in French). Renault.com. Retrieved 18 January 2017. Includes passenger and light utility variants. Click on "(décembre 2016)" to download the file "XLSX – 239 Ko" for CYTD sales in 2016, and open the tab "Sales by Model". Click on "+ Voir plus" (See more) to download the files "Ventes mensuelles du groupe (décembre 2011) (xls, 183 Ko)" "Ventes mensuelles (décembre 2012) (xls, 289 Ko)" – Ventes mensuelles (décembre 2013) (xlsx, 227 Ko)" – "XLSX – 220 Ko Ventes mensuelles (décembre 2014)" – "Ventes mensuelles (décembre 2015)" to download the file "XLSX – 227 Ko" for 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014 and 2015 sales. Sales figures for 2013 were revised in the 2014 report
  175. Groupe Renault (January 2019). "Ventes Mensuelles - Statistiques commerciales mensuelles du groupe Renault" [Monthly Sales - Monthly sales statistics of the Renault Group] (in French). Renault.com. Retrieved 20 January 2019. Sales figures includes passenger and light utility variants. Click on link "XLSX - 142 Ko Ventes mensuelles du Groupe (Décembre 2018)" to download the file, and open the tab "Sales by Model" to access sales figures for 2017 and 2018.
  176. "Nissan LEAF e+ debuts, broadens best-selling electric vehicle's appeal" (Press release). Yokohama: Nissan. 8 January 2019. Retrieved 10 January 2019.
  177. "BAIC Beijing EC180". Carsalesbase.com. January 2019. Retrieved 28 January 2019. Sales of the BAIC EC series totaled 4,128 units in 2016, 78,079 in 2017 and 90,637 in 2018.
  178. "Tesla Fourth Quarter & Full Year 2018 Update". Palo Alto: Tesla. 30 January 2019. Retrieved 30 January 2019. In Q4, we delivered 63,359 Model 3 vehicles to customers in North America.
  179. "_Update_Letter_2017-3Q.pdf Tesla Third Quarter 2017 Update". Tesla. 1 November 2017. Archived from the original on 11 January 2018. Retrieved 27 May 2018. In Q3, we delivered 25,915 Model S and Model X vehicles and 222 Model 3 vehicles, for a total of 26,137 deliveries
  180. "Tesla Fourth Quarter & Full Year 2017 Update" (PDF). Tesla (Press release). Palo Alto: Tesla. 7 February 2017. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 February 2018. Retrieved 20 October 2018. A total of 1,542 Model 3 vehicles were delivered in Q4 2018.
  181. "Record sales for BMW Group worldwide during 2017 while it boosts the Premium car market in Mexico, Latin America and the Caribbean" (Press release). BMW Group. 25 January 2018. Retrieved 17 January 2016. A total of 31,482 BMW i3s were delivered globally in 2017.
  182. "BMW Group remains world's leading premium automotive company in 2018" (Press release). Munich: BMW Group. 14 January 2019. Retrieved 14 January 2019. A total of 142,617 electrified BMW and MINI vehicles were sold around the world in 2018. BMW i3 sales increased by 10.6% in 2018 with a total of 34,829 delivered worldwide.
  183. Mat Gasnier (19 July 2014). "World Full Year 2013: Discover the Top 1000 best-selling models!". Best Selling Cars Blog. Retrieved 27 July 2014. A total of 1,477 i3s were registered in 2013. Includes press fleet vehicles and dealer demonstrators.
  184. "BMW Group sells more than 2 million vehicles in 2014" (Press release). Munich: BMW Group PressClub Global. 9 January 2015. Retrieved 10 January 2015. A total of 16,052 i3s and 1,741 i8s were sold in 2014.
  185. "BMW Group achieves fifth consecutive record sales year" (Press release). BMW Group. 11 January 2016. Retrieved 17 January 2016. A total of 29,513 BMW i brand units were delivered to customers worldwide in 2015, up 65.9% from 2014, consisting of 24,057 BMW i3s and 5,456 BMW i8s.
  186. Tesla (2 April 2017). "Tesla Q1 2017 Vehicle Production and Deliveries" (Press release). Market Wired. Retrieved 26 May 2018. Tesla (NASDAQ: TSLA) delivered just over 25,000 vehicles in Q1, of which approx 13,450 were Model S and approx 11,550 were Model X.
  187. "UPDATE - Tesla Q2 2017 Vehicle Production and Deliveries (NASDAQ:TSLA)". ir.tesla.com (Press release). Retrieved 28 September 2017.
  188. "Telsa Production Q3 2017" (Press release). Retrieved 26 May 2018.
  189. Tesla (3 January 2018). "Tesla Q4 2017 Vehicle Production and Deliveries" (Press release). Market Wired. Retrieved 26 May 2018. Tesla (NASDAQ: TSLA) delivered 29,870 vehicles, of which 15,200 were Model S, 13,120 were Model X, and 1,550 were Model 3
  190. "China's new energy PV wholesale volume in 2018 shoots up 83% year on year". Gasgoo. 11 January 2019. Retrieved 15 January 2019. The BAIC EC series ranked as China's top selling plug-in car in 2018 with 90,637 units delivered, and the Chery eQ listed second with 46,967 units (4,732 sold in December).
  191. Pontes, Jose (30 November 2018). "Global All-Time Top 5 (Until Oct. '18 - Updated)". EVSales.com. Retrieved 3 December 2018.
  192. Pontes, Jose (21 December 2018). "China November 2018". EVSales.com. Retrieved 15 January 2019. A total of 4,352 Chery eQ electric cars were sold in November 2018.
  193. Jeff Cobb (16 September 2015). "One Million Global Plug-In Sales Milestone Reached". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 16 September 2015. Cumulative global sales totaled about 1,004,000 highway legal plug-in electric passenger cars and light-duty vehicles by mid-September 2015, of which, 62% are all-electric cars and vans, and 38% plug-in hybrids.
  194. Nic Lutsey (29 September 2015). "Global milestone: The first million electric vehicles". International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT). Retrieved 10 October 2015.
  195. Shahan, Zachary (22 November 2016). "1 Million Pure EVs Worldwide: EV Revolution Begins!". Clean Technica. Retrieved 23 November 2016.
  196. "Publication: Global EV Outlook 2017". www.iea.org. Archived from the original on 31 July 2017. Retrieved 8 June 2017.
  197. Cobb, Jeff (18 January 2017). "The World Just Bought Its Two-Millionth Plug-in Car". HybridCars.com. Retrieved 17 January 2017. An estimated 2,032,000 highway-legal plug-in passenger cars and vans have been sold worldwide at the end of 2016. The top selling markets are China (645,708 new energy cars, including imports), Europe (638,000 plug-in cars and vans), and the United States (570,187 plug-in cars). The top European country markets are Norway (135,276), the Netherlands (113,636), France (108,065), and the UK (91,000). Total Chinese sales of domestically produced new energy vehicles, including buses and truck, totaled 951,447 vehicles. China was the top selling plug-in car market in 2016, and also has the world's largest stock of plug-in electric cars.
  198. Vaughan, Adam (25 December 2017). "Electric and plug-in hybrid cars whiz past 3m mark worldwide". The Guardian. Retrieved 20 January 2018. "The number of fully electric and plug-in hybrid cars on the world's roads passed the 3 million mark in November 2017."
  199. International Energy Agency (IEA), Clean Energy Ministerial, and Electric Vehicles Initiative (EVI) (May 2018). "Global EV Outlook 2017: 3 million and counting" (PDF). IEA Publications. Retrieved 23 October 2018.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) See pp. 9–10, 19–23, 29–28, and Statistical annex, pp. 107–113. The global stock of plug-in electric passenger cars totaled 3,109,050 units, of which, 1,928,360 were battery electric cars..
  200. Argonne National Laboratory, United States Department of Energy (28 March 2016). "Fact #918: March 28, 2016 – Global Plug-in Light Vehicles Sales Increased By About 80% in 2015". Office of Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy. Retrieved 29 March 2016.
  201. European Automobile Manufacturers Association (ACEA) (1 February 2017). "New Passenger Car Registrations By Alternative Fuel Type In The European Union: Quarter 4 2016" (PDF). ACEA. Retrieved 23 October 2018. See table New Passenger Car Registrations By Market In The EU + EFTA - Total Electric Rechargeable Vehicles: Total EU + EFTA in Q1-Q4 2015.
  202. European Automobile Manufacturers Association (ACEA) (1 February 2018). "New Passenger Car Registrations By Alternative Fuel Type In The European Union: Quarter 4 2017" (PDF). ACEA. Retrieved 23 October 2018. See table New Passenger Car Registrations By Market In The EU + EFTA - Total Electric Rechargeable Vehicles: Total EU + EFTA in Q1-Q4 2017 and Q1-Q4 2016.
  203. Norwegian Road Federation (OFV) (2 January 2019). "Bilsalget i 2018" [Car sales in 2018] (in Norwegian). OFV. Retrieved 3 January 2019.
  204. "State and Federal Incentives for EVs, PHEVs and Charge Stations". Plug In America. Retrieved 29 May 2010.
  205. "Electric car grant: the lowdown on the changes for 2016". London: Go Ultra Low. 2 March 2016. Retrieved 2 March 2016.
  206. Woodyard, Chris (14 July 2010). "Obama pushes electric cars, battery power this week". USA Today.
  207. Swann, Albert (28 October 2017). "On the Future of Electric Cars – Far From a Sure Thing?". Motorward.
  208. Paul Hockenos (29 July 2011). "Europe's Incentive Plans for Spurring E.V. Sales". The New York Times. Retrieved 31 July 2011.
  209. "Overview of Purchase and Tax Incentives for Electric Vehicles in the EU" (PDF). European Automobile Manufacturers Association. 14 March 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 September 2011. Retrieved 31 July 2011.
  210. "VW plans 27 electric cars by 2022 on new platform". Green Car Reports. Retrieved 17 June 2019.
  211. Volkswagen, Ford. "Ford-VW Partnership Expands, Blue Oval Getting MEB Platform For EVs". Motor1.com. Retrieved 16 July 2019.
  212. "What Toyota's next EVs will look like -- and why". Automotive News. 16 June 2019. Retrieved 17 June 2019.
  213. "2 EVs on 1 platform: How to tell them apart?". Automotive News. 2 November 2019. Retrieved 2 November 2019.
  214. "BMW plans 12 all-electric models by 2025". Green Car Reports. Retrieved 17 June 2019.
  215. "BMW boosts CATL battery order to €7.3B, signs €2.9B battery order with Samsung SDI". Green Car Congress. Retrieved 21 November 2019.
  216. "BMW places battery cell orders worth more than $11 billion". Automotive News. 21 November 2019. Retrieved 21 November 2019.
  217. "BMW orders more than 10 billion euros' worth of battery cells". Reuters. 21 November 2019. Retrieved 21 November 2019.
  218. "Plans for more than ten different all-electric vehicles by 2022: All systems are go". marsMediaSite. Retrieved 17 June 2019.
  219. "Mercedes-Benz EQC Will Lead Automaker's Electric Vehicle Plans". Trucks.com. 23 January 2019. Retrieved 17 June 2019.
  220. Dow, Jameson (14 January 2019). "Cadillac reveals images of the brand's first EV, built on GM's "BEV3" platform to challenge Tesla". Electrek. Retrieved 16 July 2019.
  221. "GM aims to make Cadillac lead EV brand". electrive.com. 13 January 2019. Retrieved 16 July 2019.
  222. "The era of electrification". Automotive News. 7 October 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
  223. Capparella, Joey (17 January 2019). "An All-Electric Ford F-150 Pickup Truck Is Happening". Car and Driver. Retrieved 7 October 2019.
  224. Hoffman, Conor (18 November 2019). "2021 Ford Mustang Mach-E Will Please EV Fans, Perplex Mustang Loyalists". Car and Driver. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
  225. Frost, Laurence; Tajisu, Naomi (16 January 2018). Maler, Sandra; O'Brein, Rosalba (eds.). "Nissan's Infiniti vehicles to go electric". Reuters. Retrieved 8 October 2019. All new Infiniti models launched from 2021 will be either electric or so-called “e-Power” hybrids, Saikawa told the Automotive News World Congress in Detroit.
  226. "Hyundai targets EV sales of over half a million by 2025, posts disappointing third quarter". Reuters. 24 October 2019. Retrieved 25 October 2019.
  227. Bergquist, Magnus; Nilsson, Andreas (June 2016). "I saw the sign: Promoting energy conservation via normative prompts". Journal of Environmental Psychology. 46: 23–31. doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2016.03.005.
  228. Brase, Gary L. (17 February 2019). "What Would It Take to Get You into an Electric Car? Consumer Perceptions and Decision Making about Electric Vehicles". The Journal of Psychology. 153 (2): 214–236. doi:10.1080/00223980.2018.1511515. ISSN 0022-3980. PMID 30260757.
  229. Günther, Madlen; Rauh, Nadine; Krems, Josef F. (April 2019). "How driving experience and consumption related information influences eco-driving with battery electric vehicles – Results from a field study". Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour. 62: 435–450. doi:10.1016/j.trf.2019.01.016.
  230. Anfinsen, Martin; Lagesen, Vivian Anette; Ryghaug, Marianne (June 2019). "Green and gendered? Cultural perspectives on the road towards electric vehicles in Norway". Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment. 71: 37–46. doi:10.1016/j.trd.2018.12.003.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.