Space advertising

Elon Musk's Tesla Roadster mounted on Falcon Heavy upper-stage; Earth in the background

The number of successful projects is low, due to the high cost of orbital launch and of maintaining the advertisement over time.[10] Considering that SpaceX's minimum cost for sending objects into space is already in the millions, there have not been many attempts, and fewer successful attempts. Out of the few successful attempts that have worked, even fewer companies have managed to gain the publicity that they desire; Elon Musk is one such exception in sending out his Tesla Roadster into space.[2][11]

Some of the successful attempts include, but are not limited to, the following list:

• Tokyo Broadcasting System (1990) - Paid spaceflight where a journalist was sent into orbit with the company logo on space vehicle[12]
• Pepsi (1996) - Paid approximately US$5 million to have a cosmonaut float a replica of the company's soda can outside the Russian space station[12]
• Tnuva (1997) - Filming of a milk commercial in space for the Israeli company[12]
• Pizza Hut (2000) - Paid approximately US$1 million for a space ad that saw their logo painted on a rocket[12]
• Element 21 (2006) - Russian cosmonaut Mikhail Tyurin hit a golf ball from the ISS porch as part of a commercial with Element 21[13]
• SpaceX (2018) - Sent a Tesla Roadster into orbit as the dummy payload for Falcon Heavy test flight[14]
• Rocket Lab (2019) - Sent a shiny object, the Humanity Star, into orbit[15]

Although the sheer number of attempts of space advertising is not significant, there have been several past failed attempts as companies and organizations around the world planned different projects and plans to launch some type of marketing ploy into space.

Some of the failed attempts that have occurred in the past include, but are not limited to, the following list:

• France (1987) - Project named "The Ring of Light" which involved the launch of an inflatable ring in space[16]
• Russian Space Program (1990s) - Russian space program that involved the launch of satellites designed to reflect and beam sunlight to polar regions on Earth[12]
• Space Marketing Inc. (1993) - Proposed launching a giant billboard into space[6]
• China (2018) - Proposed putting an artificial moon in space[17]

• Outer Space Treaty (1966) sets principles of international space law. It determines that all States should have the right to freely explore the outer space.[18] This treaty provides free access to space so space advertising is not subject to global prohibition.[19]
• Space Liability Convention (1972) rules that a State is fully liable for damages caused by space objects launched in its territory. Under this treaty, States are responsible for private launches for commercial purposes, including advertising.[20]

• 51 U.S. Code 50911 regulates that no license will be issued and no launch will be permitted for activities that involve obtrusive space advertising. This prohibition does not apply to other forms of advertising, such as displaying logos.[21] The display of logos is allowed in both launches with commercial licenses and launches with experiment permits.[22]
• US's National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is discussing on loosening its commercial restriction policy as a governmental agency.[23] It is considering to sell the naming rights of its spacecraft for financial purposes.[23] Loosening such restrictions might cause more brands to conduct space advertising.[24]
• In 2019, NASA opened International Space Station (ISS) for space advertising and other short-duration commercial activities conducted by private companies' crews.[25]
• In November 2016, Japan legislated a licensing system for private-sector companies' launching. This act aims to stimulate Japanese's commercial activities in space by supporting third-party liability insurance as well as channeling more liability onto launching companies to assure customers who pay the launchers.[26]
• Russia prohibits launches which contaminate the outer space and create unfavorable environmental changes.[27] However, there is no explicit ban on space advertising despite the light pollution and debris it potentially creates.[28][29]

There is also growing concern about the dangers that can be caused by launching more objects - including advertisements - in space. Placing more satellites in space could increase opportunities for collisions, as stated by John Crassidis, a professor of mechanical and aerospace engineering at the University at Buffalo. He believes that the biggest issue will be how the additional satellites can potentially become space debris.[30] An implication of the additional advertising satellites in space could contribute to the Kessler syndrome. Many other incidents of space collisions have occurred:

• French satellite collision (1996) - First verified case of collision between artificial space objects that further contributed to space debris.
• China's anti-satellite test (2007) - Contributed to more than 3,000 pieces of space debris.
• Russian satellite (2009) - A Russian satellite that was no longer functioning collided with a functioning U.S. Iridium commercial satellite and contributed to more than 2,000 additional space debris.[31]

Aside from the danger that can be brought about with increasing space advertising, pollution is also another problem. A paper that was presented to the United Nations by International Astronomical Union stated that "Scattered light from sunlit spacecraft and space debris, and radio noise from communications satellites and global positioning systems in space, reach the entire surface of the Earth”.[32] Furthermore, there is currently no international consensus on the best way to remove the space debris since space in the international territory and so the increase in space debris will also make space even more impenetrable because of the increased likelihood of collision which can deter future space missions.[33]

• In the 2008 computer-animated science fiction film WALL-E, the star liner spacecraft Axiom features a wide variety of advertisements for Buy n Large products.
• 

  Logo used by the Planet Express company in Futurama
  In the movie Hancock, the logo of the fictitious All-Heart charity is painted on the Moon by the title character.

• In Fredric Brown's 1945 short story, "Pi in the Sky," an inventor rearranges the apparent positions of the stars to form an advertising slogan.[34]
• In Robert A. Heinlein's 1951 novella The Man Who Sold the Moon the protagonist raises funds for his lunar ambitions by publicly describing means of covering the visible lunar face in advertising and propaganda, and then taking money not to do so.
• In Isaac Asimov's 1958 short story "Buy Jupiter", a group of extraterrestrials broker a deal with the governments of Earth to purchase the planet Jupiter for use as an advertisement platform to passing starships from their worlds.
• In Franquin's 1961 comics album Z comme Zorglub, Zorglub tries to write an advertisement for Coca-Cola on the Moon.
• A Red Dwarf novel features an advertising campaign whereby a ship is sent on a mission by The Coca-Cola Company to cause 128 stars to go supernova in order to visibly spell the words "Coke Adds Life!" across the sky on Earth. The message is intended to last five weeks, and be visible even in daylight.