Randy Wayne (biologist)

Randy O. Wayne is a plant cell biologist at Cornell University[4] notable for his work on plant development.[5] In particular, along with his colleague Peter K. Hepler, Wayne established the powerful role of calcium in regulating plant growth;[6][7] accordingly, their 1985 article Calcium and plant development was cited by at least 405 subsequent articles to earn the "Citation Classic" award from Current Contents magazine[8] and has been cited by hundreds more since 1993. He is an authority on how plant cells sense gravity through pressure,[5][9][10] on the water permeability of plant membranes,[11] light microscopy,[12] as well as the effects of calcium on plant development.[8][13] He wrote two textbooks including Plant Cell Biology: From Astronomy to Zoology[14][15] and Light and Video Microscopy.[16] The second edition of Plant Cell Biology: From Astronomy to Zoology is dedicated to Erwin Chargaff.

Copy of Dedication page to Plant Cell Biology sent to Thomas Chargaff, son of Erwin Chargaff
Randy Wayne
Born (1955-05-08) May 8, 1955
Boston, Massachusetts United States
NationalityAmerican
Alma materUniversity of Massachusetts Amherst BS 1977
University of California at Los Angeles Masters 1979[1]
University of Massachusetts Amherst PhD 1985[1]
Scientific career
FieldsBiophysical Plant Cell Biology
InstitutionsCornell[2][3]
Doctoral advisorPeter K. Hepler
WebsiteRandy Wayne at Cornell

In 2010, Wayne proposed a theory of light[17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24] that is inconsistent with relativity.[25][26][27][28]

Personal Life

Randy Wayne was born to Cynthia and Leonard Wayne in Boston, Massachusetts on May 8, 1955. He has one brother, Scott Wayne. He is married to Amy Allyn Wayne.[29]

Education

Wayne completed his undergraduate studies in Botany at the University of Massachusetts. He earned an M.A. in Biology from the University of California at Los Angeles, and a Ph.D. in Plant Cell Biology from the University of Massachusetts in 1985 working under Peter K. Hepler. He was a post-doc at The University of Texas at Austin working with Stanley Roux, Guy Thompson, and H. Y. Lim Tung, and had a Japanese Society for the Promotion of Science Fellowship to work with Masashi Tazawa at the University of Tokyo. While in Japan, Wayne worked at the National Institute of Basic Biology in Okazaki with Akeo Kadota, Masakatsu Watanabe, and Masaki Furuya, Hitotsubashi University in Kunitachi with Eiji Kamitsubo, and the Himeji Institute of Technology with Tetsuro Mimura and Teruo Shimmen. Wayne learned botany from Ed Davis and Edward J. Klekowski, plant anatomy and plant morphology from David W. Bierhorst, James G. Bruce, and Dan B. Walker, plant physiology and plant biochemistry from Bernard Rubinstein, James A. Lockhart, Arthur I. Stern, Burlyn E. Michel, Claud L. Brown, Clanton C. Black, and Park S. Nobel, plant morphogenesis from Otto L. Stein, Seymour Shapiro, Elaine M. Tobin, and Bernard O. Phinney, plant ecology and evolution from David L. Mulcahy, community ecology from Walter Westman, genetics from Bruce R. Levin, cell biology from Peter L. Webster and Elma Gonzalez, cytogenetics from Carl P. Swanson, phycology from W. Marshall Darley, mycology from Melvin S. Fuller, plant taxonomy from Harlan Lewis and Henry J. Thompson, statistics from Ted Emigh, cell motility and light microscopy from Peter K. Hepler, and economic botany from Oswald Tippo. While teaching at Cornell University, Wayne audited plant biochemistry taught by André Jagendorf, Tom Owens, Eloy Rodriguez, and John Thompson, plant chemistry taught by Manuel Aregullin, ion transport taught by Roger M. Spanswick, ion channels taught by Owen Hamill, calculus taught by Thomas Rishel, analog and digital electronics taught by Don McBride, mechanics & heat taught by Maxim Perelstein, introduction to special relativity taught by Al Sievers, electromagnetism taught by Veit Elser, electricity & magnetism taught by André LeClair, intermediate electricity & magnetism taught by Csaba Csaki, oscillations, waves, and quantum Mechanics taught by Tomas Arias, waves and thermal Physics taught by Peter Wittich and Henry Tye, basics of quantum mechanics taught by Georg Hoffstaetter and J. C. Seamus Davis, applications of quantum mechanics taught by Piet Brouwer, introduction to astrophysics taught by Dong Lai, introduction to philosophy taught by Christopher Williams, history of science in Europe: from the ancient legacy to Isaac Newton, and history of science in Europe: Newton to Darwin; Darwin to Einstein taught by Peter Dear, and history of the physical sciences taught by Suman Seth.

Career

Wayne joined the faculty at Cornell University in 1987. He is a member of the CALS School of Integrative Plant Science.[30] He has a deep interest in teaching science [31][32][33] and teaches Plant Cell Biology and Light and Video Microscopy. He has taught a course for nonmajors entitled, Biological Principles [34] and subsequently taught a course for nonmajors entitled, Light and Life. Wayne also has strong views on the meaning of a college education.[35][36][37] Wayne is a member of the Biology and Society major[38], which is designed for students who wish to combine training in biology with perspectives from the social sciences and humanities to understand the scientific, social, political, and ethical aspects of modern biology. Wayne is an overseas member of the Lunar Society[39].

Fern Spore Germination

When it was generally assumed that fern spores contained all the ions necessary for germination,[40] Wayne, working with Peter K. Hepler, showed that external calcium ions were necessary for the red light-stimulated, phytochrome-mediated signal transduction chain that leads to the germination response of the spores of Onoclea sensibilis.[41][42][43] Calcium ions are required for the red light-stimulated, phytochrome-mediated signal transduction chains that lead to germination in the spores of other species.[44][45]

Water Permeability of Plant Cell Membranes

It was generally considered that water moved in and out of the plant cell through the lipid bilayer. Wayne, working with Masashi Tazawa,[46] presented most of the now classical arguments favoring membrane water channels and clearly demonstrated their major contribution to osmotic water transport.[47] Wayne's work preceded the molecular identification of aquaporins in plant cells.[48][49][50]

Gravity Sensing in Plant Cells

It is generally believed that the sedimentation of starch-containing plastids, known as amyloplasts, is responsible for gravity-sensing in plant cells.[51] However, based on the facts that plant cells that do not contain sedimenting amyloplasts still sense gravity[52][53][54][55] and that starchless mutants in higher plants are almost as sensitive to gravity as the wild-type plants,[56][57] Wayne, working with Mark P. Staves and A. Carl Leopold proposed that the amyloplasts do not act as gravity sensors, but as a ballast to enhance the gravitational pressure sensed by proteins at the plasma membrane–extracellular matrix junction.[58][59][60]

Plant Development and the Arrow of Time

It is a commonplace that plant development is not reversible in time. For example, two daughter cells never go through a reverse mitosis to merge into one mother cell; four pollen grains never go through a reverse meiosis to merge into a pollen mother cell; ejected fern spores never reassemble in a sporangium; and oak trees never recede into an acorn. The irreversibility of plant development is inconsistent with the fundamental laws of physics, which are symmetrical with respect to time and predict that all events are fundamentally reversible. Wayne has shown that the inconsistency between the botanical view and the physical view is a result of temperature being an outsider in the laws of motion given by Newton and Einstein and that this oversight is the source of the predictions of time-reversal-invariance (TRI) or T-symmetry made by these two great systems of motion. Neglecting temperature in the laws of motion is tantamount to assuming that events take place at absolute zero. Consequently, Wayne claims that the laws of motion are only perfectly valid at absolute zero. By taking into consideration Planck’s law of blackbody radiation that incorporates temperature into the laws of motion and the Doppler effect, Wayne has shown that photons in the environment through which any particle with a charge and/or a magnetic moment moves, act as a source of temperature-dependent radiation friction on everything from elementary particles to galaxies.[27][61][62][63] Because this radiation- or optomechanical-friction is universal and inevitable at any temperature above absolute zero, no real systems are ever conservative, and temperature can no longer be an outsider in a fundamental and irreducible law of motion. Thus the inconsistency between the observations by botanists and the fundamental laws of physics is settled in favor of the worldview of botanists.

Wayne has defined the change of entropy in irreversible systems at constant temperature in terms of the optomechanical friction that occurs as a result of any motion that takes place above absolute zero. The Second Law of Thermodynamics, which states that the change of entropy is greater than zero for spontaneous processes, is explained by electromagnetic interactions between charged particles and the Doppler-shifted photons through which they move. Because the Doppler-shifted photons move away from the particles at the speed of light, the change of entropy, as defined by Wayne, is not subject to the Poincaré recurrence theorem. Consequently, Wayne concludes that the Second Law of Thermodynamics is a fundamental law of nature rather than a statistical law of physics. This conclusion, which is consistent with the routine experience of botanists, supports the idea that the arrow of time is fundamentally real and inevitable, that every instant of time is unique.

Light and Plant Development

Light is fundamental to plant development as well as photosynthesis. Light, absorbed by phytochrome, cryptochrome, photopsin, and other photoreceptor pigments, acts as a signal for the germination of many seeds and spores, for the development of seedlings, and for the initiation of flowering. Light-mediated development is known as photomorphogenesis. The current model of light in terms of a mathematical point-like photon or an infinite plane wave is not helpful in understanding how light influences plant development. Wayne claims that the fundamental unit of light is not an elementary particle but a composite entity known as a binary photon that is composed of a particle of matter and its conjugate antiparticle. These semiphotons rotate around the axis of propagation in the transverse plane as they oscillate and translate along the axis of propagation. When the semiphotons are assigned equal and opposite mass, charge, and sense of rotation, which make the binary photons massless and electrically neutral, they generate a transverse electric field and a magnetic field within the binary photon that is orthogonal to and a quarter wave out of phase with the electric field. The electromagnetic fields function to eject an electron in a given photoreceptor pigment from the ground state to the excited state and to rotate the bonds in long wavelength photoreceptors like phytochrome.

Wayne has developed wave functions that represent the paths of the semiphotons in Euclidean space and Newtonian time. The transverse wave functions are solutions to the Schrödinger equation that has been modified to directly operate on bosons as opposed to fermions, and the longitudinal wavefunctions are solutions to the classical equations of mechanics. These fields, unlike the fields described by Maxwell’s equations, are consistent with the assumptions of the Kirchhoff's diffraction equation.

Wayne’s wave mechanical approach shows that the binary photon can be visualized as an oscillating particulate rotor propagating electromagnetic waves through Euclidean space and Newtonian time at the invariant vacuum speed of light. While quantum mechanical calculations typically agree with experience while being at odds with ordinary concepts of trajectories in space and time, the wave mechanical calculations carried out by Wayne agree with experience without conflicting with the ordinary concepts of space and time. In contrast to the claims of Heisenberg and Born, the mathematical description of the quantized binary photon presented by Wayne is consistent with the Anschaulichkeit, picturability, or imaged facts of classical physics sought by Einstein.

Gravity and Plant Development

Gravity is fundamental to plant development. The gravitational force, sensed by a gravity receptor that is composed of a comparator that senses compression at the bottom of the cell and tension at the top of a cell, acts a signal for plants so that the shoot grows up and the roots grow down. This response to gravity is known as gravitropism. The current model of gravity in terms of an action at a distance by a pulling force or the warping of space-time is not helpful in understanding how gravity influences plant development. Wayne claims that the fundamental unit of gravity is not an elementary particle but a composite entity known as a binary photon that is composed of a particle of matter and its conjugate antiparticle. Unlike the binary photons with wavelengths in the visible range that interact with low mass electrons of matter (leptons), the binary photons that carry the gravitational force have extremely long wavelengths and interact with the high mass baryons in the nuclei of matter. As in the case of nuclear magnetic resonance, it is the long wavelength binary photons that interact with the heavy nuclear particles. Wayne equates these long wavelength binary photons with gravitons; both of which are carriers of forces that obey the inverse square law.[64] The gravitons fill the universe. Wayne claims that they act on matter not by exerting a pulling force but by exerting a pushing force, just as light does. The idea that gravity acts as a pushing force had been proposed by Nicolas Fatio de Duillier, Georges-Louis Le Sage, and others. According to Wayne, the gravitons coming from the direction of the earth are scattered before they reach a plant whereas the gravitons coming from the direction of the sky are not scattered away as much. The plant gravitational sensor responds to the differential number of gravitons coming from the opposite directions of the sky and the earth. The differential graviton density exerts a downward force on the mass of the plant cell. This gravitational pressure activates the gravitational receptors at the plasma membrane-extracellular matrix junction, which results in the plant’s observed response to gravity.

Books
  • Plant Cell Biology: From Astronomy to Zoology, 2009, Elsevier/Academic Press. (ISBN 9780123742339)
  • Plant Cell Biology: From Astronomy to Zoology, Second Edition, 2019, Elsevier/Academic Press. (ISBN 9780128143711)
  • Light and Video Microscopy, 2009, Elsevier/Academic Press. (ISBN 9780080921280)
  • Light and Video Microscopy, Second Edition, 2014, Elsevier/Academic Press. (ISBN 9780124114845)
  • Light and Video Microscopy, Third Edition, 2019, Elsevier/Academic Press. (ISBN 9780128165010)

Podcasts
  • Mann Library Book Talk Plant Cell Biology: From Astronomy to Zoology[65]
  • Mann Library Book Talk Light and Video Microscopy [66]

References
  1. "Randy O Wayne (faculty biography)". Cornell University Department of Plant Biology. 2012-06-28. Retrieved 2012-06-28. Bachelor's Degree Univ Massachusetts 1977 Master's Degree University of California Los Angeles 1979 Doctorate Univ Massachusetts 1985
  2. Sean T. Hammond and Karl J. Niklas (10 January 2012). "Computer simulations support a core prediction of a contentious plant model". American Journal of Botany. Retrieved 2012-06-28.
  3. Randy O. Wayne, in Ithaca Journal on August 4, 2011, Cornell decision to ax courses steps on academic freedom — Ithaca Journal, Retrieved Aug. 26, 2014, "...we question Cornell’s commitment to the concept of academic freedom.."
  4. "Where is the Freedom to Question?". American Institute for Technology and Science Education. 2012. Archived from the original on 2012-08-17. Retrieved 2012-06-28.
  5. "SCIENCE WATCH; Telling Up From Down". The New York Times. 1992. Retrieved 2012-06-28.
  6. V. Raghavan (1989). "Developmental Biology of Fern Gametophytes". Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-33022-0. Retrieved 2012-06-28. Direct demonstration of an increased Ca2+ influx in the spore following exposure to a saturating dose of red light has been possible by atomic absorption spectroscopy (Wayne and Hepler, 1985a).
  7. "A Basic Distinction (in the Breakthroughs Section)". Discover Magazine. November 1992. Volume 13, Number 11
  8. "This Week's Citation Classic" (PDF). Current Contents. July 26, 1993. Retrieved 2012-06-28. The SCI® indicates that this paper has been cited in more than 405 publications -- Hepler P K & Wayne R O. Calcium and plant development. Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol. 36:397-439. 1985. -- Department of Botany, University of Massachusetts. Amherst. MA
  9. Boyce Rensberger (July 13, 1992). "Getting to the Root Of Plant Growth; How Seeds Sprout in the Proper Direction". Washington Post.
  10. Elison B. Blancaflor and Patrick H. Masson (December 2003). "Update on Tropisms: Plant Gravitropism. Unraveling the Ups and Downs of a Complex Process". Plant Physiology. pp. 1677–1690. Retrieved 2012-06-28. Vol. 133 Citing this article: Staves MP, Wayne R, Leopold AC (1997) The effect of external medium on the gravitropic curvature of rice (Oryza sativa, Poaceae) roots. Am J Bot 84:1522–1529
  11. Christophe Maurel (June 1997). "AQUAPORINS AND WATER PERMEABILITY OF PLANT MEMBRANES". Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology. doi:10.1146/annurev.arplant.48.1.399. Vol. 48: 399-429; DOI: 10.1146/annurev.arplant.48.1.399
  12. Randy Wayne (August 2008). "Light and Video Microscopy". Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-374234-6. Retrieved 2012-06-28.
  13. Roux, S. J.; Wayne, R. O.; Datta, N. (1986). "Role of calcium ions in phytochrome responses: an update". Physiologia Plantarum. 66 (2): 344–348. doi:10.1111/j.1399-3054.1986.tb02430.x. PMID 11538657.
  14. Plant cell biology. From astronomy to zoology, R Wayne, 2009, Elsevier/Academic Press. Reviewer: Nigel Chaffey, 2010, Plant cell biology. From astronomy to zoology (textbook review), Retrieved Aug. 26, 2014, "...Plant cell biology is an idiosyncratic text and permeated throughout with Wayne's own humour and take on the subject..."
  15. Nigel Chaffey (reviewer of Wayne's book) (August 4, 2010). "Plant cell biology. From astronomy to zoology". Annals of Botany. Retrieved 2012-06-28.
  16. Carol Bayles (April 2010). "Let There be Light (review of Randy Wayne's book Light and Video Microscopy)". BioScience. Retrieved 2012-06-28. Volume 60 No. 4 BioScience ...excellent undergraduate level text on optical microscopy for biologists... also valuable to anyone using a light microscope ... An ability to elucidate difficult concepts is not the only thing that makes Wayne an excellent teacher. He is also a historian of science and has thoroughly researched the topic in order to bring historical information to the reader.
  17. Wayne, Randy (2020). "The Binary Photon: A Heuristic Proposal to Address the Enigmatic Properties of Light". African Review of Physics. 15: 74–91. Retrieved June 18, 2020.
  18. Randy Wayne, "Nature of Light from the Perspective of a Biologist. What Is a Photon?", In: Mohammad Pessarakli (ed.), Handbook of Photosynthesis, CRC Press, 2016, ISBN 1482230755, pp. 17-43
  19. Hentschel, Klaus (2018). Photons: The History and Mental Models of Light Quanta. Cham, Switzerland: Springer. pp. 113, 181. ISBN 978-3-319-95251-2.
  20. Wayne, Randy (2018). "A Description of the Electromagnetic Fields of a Binary Photon". African Review of Physics. 13: 128–141. Retrieved October 5, 2019.
  21. Wayne, Randy (2019). "Using the Schrödinger Equation for a Boson to Relate the Wave-like Qualities and Quantized Particle-like Quantities of the Binary Photon in Euclidean Space and Newtonian Time". African Review of Physics. 14: 49–64. Retrieved October 5, 2019.
  22. Wayne, Randy (2019). "The Kirchhoff Diffraction Equation based on the Electromagnetic Properties of the Binary Photon". African Review of Physics. 14: 30–48. Retrieved October 11, 2019.
  23. Wayne, Randy (2019). "ERRATA CORRIGENDUM: The Kirchhoff Diffraction Equation based on the Electromagnetic Properties of the Binary". African Review of Physics. 14. Retrieved October 11, 2019.
  24. Faraday, C., R. Furnas, M. Rutzke, and R. Wayne (2020). "The Action of a Magnetic Field on Light and Matter: Possible Direct Interaction between Magnetism and Light". African Review of Physics. 15: 92–109. Retrieved June 18, 2020.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  25. Dan Veaner (October 15, 2010). "Cornell Scientist Challenges Einstein". Lansing Star. Retrieved 2012-06-28.
  26. "Electrons can't exceed the speed of light -- thanks to light itself, says biologist". Chronicle Online. Nov 18, 2010. Retrieved 2012-06-28.
  27. Randy Wayne, 18 Mar 2011, arXiv:1103.3697 (physics.gen-ph), Charged Particles are Prevented from Going Faster than the Speed of Light by Light Itself: A Biophysical Cell Biologist's Contribution to Physics, Retrieved Aug. 26, 2014, "...Consequently, light itself prevents charged particles from moving faster than the speed of light..."
  28. Randy Wayne (Nov 20, 2015). "As Time Goes By and Albert Einstein. Do the Fundamental Things Still Apply?". The Lansing Star. Retrieved 2015-11-23.
  29. "Amy and Randy's Wedding". vimeo.com.
  30. "School of Integrative Plant Science". Retrieved March 28, 2019.
  31. Mazhar, Tajwar. "Prof's Book Blurs Boundaries between Sciences". Cornell Daily Sun November 4, 2009.
  32. Wayne, Randy and Staves, Mark P. (2008). "Model Scientists". Communicative & Integrative Biology. 1: 97–103. doi:10.4161/cib.1.1.6285. PMC 2633809. PMID 19513206.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  33. Wayne, Randy (March 1, 2019). "Letters to the Editor". Boston Globe Magazine. Retrieved March 3, 2019.
  34. Newkirk, Zach (2011). "Freedom to Teach at Cornell" (PDF). Cornell Progressive. 11 (4): 1, 5.
  35. Wayne, Randy (March 1, 2019). "Putting the Measurable over the Meaningful. Letter to the Editor". Boston Globe Magazine. Retrieved November 11, 2019.
  36. Wayne, Randy (November 5, 2019). "LETTER TO THE EDITOR: Re: 'College Shouldn't Be a Breeze.' Cornell Daily Sun. November 4, 2019". Cornell Daily Sun. Retrieved November 11, 2019.
  37. Wayne, Randy (November 12, 2019). "LETTER TO THE EDITOR: Re: 'Remember What It Means to Be a Student'". Cornell Daily Sun. Retrieved November 11, 2019.
  38. "Biology & Society Major at Cornell University". Department of Science & Technology Studies at Cornell University. Retrieved March 17, 2019.
  39. "Lunar Society".
  40. Raghavan, V (1980). "Cytology, Physiology, and Biochemistry of Germination of Fern Spores". International Review of Cytology. 62: 69–118. doi:10.1016/S0074-7696(08)61899-9. ISBN 9780123644626.
  41. Wayne, Randy and Hepler, Peter, K. (1984). "The Role of Calcium Ions in Phytochrome-mediated germination of spores of Onoclea sensibilis L.". Planta. 160 (1): 12–20. doi:10.1007/BF00392460. PMID 24258366.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  42. Wayne, Randy and Hepler, Peter K. (1985). "Red Light Stimulates and Increase in Intracellular Calcium in the Spores of Onoclea sensibilis". Plant Physiology. 77 (1): 8–11. doi:10.1104/pp.77.1.8. PMC 1064446. PMID 16664033.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  43. Wayne, Randy and Hepler, Peter K. (1985). "The Atomic Composition of Onoclea sensibilis Spores". American Fern Journal. 75 (1): 12–18. doi:10.2307/1546574. JSTOR 1546574.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  44. Iino, Moritoshi, Endo, Masami and Wada, Masamitsu (1989). "The Occurrence of a Ca2+-Dependent Period in the Red Light-induced Late G1 Phase of Germinating Adiantum Spores" (PDF). Plant Physiology. 91 (2): 610–616. doi:10.1104/pp.91.2.610. PMC 1062044. PMID 16667076.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  45. Dürr, S. and Scheuerlein, Robert (1990). "Characterization of a Calcium-Requiring Phase during Phytochrome-mediated Fern-Spore Germination of Dryopteris paleacea Sw". Photochemistry and Photobiology. 52: 73–82. doi:10.1111/j.1751-1097.1990.tb01758.x.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  46. Wayne, Randy and Tazawa, Masashi (1990). "Nature of the Water Channels in the Internodal Cells of Nitellopsis". Journal of Membrane Biology. 116 (1): 31–39. doi:10.1007/bf01871669. PMID 2165174.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  47. Maurel, Christophe (1997). "Aquaporins and Water Permeability of Plant Membranes". Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology. 48: 399–429. doi:10.1146/annurev.arplant.48.1.399. PMID 15012269.
  48. Kaldenhoff, R., Bertl, A., Otto, B., Moshelion, M. and Uehlein, N. (2007). "Characterization of Plant Aquaporins". Osmosensing and Osmosignaling. Methods in Enzymology. 428. pp. 505–31. doi:10.1016/S0076-6879(07)28028-0. ISBN 9780123739216. PMID 17875436.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  49. Kammerloher, W., Fischer, U., Piechottka, G.P. and Schäffner, A.R. (1994). "Water Channels in the Plant Plasma Membrane Cloned by Immunoselection from a Mammalian Expression System". Plant J. 6 (2): 187–99. doi:10.1046/j.1365-313X.1994.6020187.x. PMID 7920711.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  50. Maeshima, M. (2001). "Tonoplast Transporters: Organization and Function". Annual Review of Plant Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology. 52 (1): 469–497. doi:10.1146/annurev.arplant.52.1.469. PMID 11337406.
  51. Morita, Miyo T. (2010). "Directional Gravity Sensing in Gravitropism" (PDF). Annual Review of Plant Biology. 61: 705–720. doi:10.1146/annurev.arplant.043008.092042. PMID 19152486.
  52. Wayne, Randy, Staves, Mark P. and Leopold, A. Carl (1995). "Detection of Gravity-Induced Polarity of Cytoplasmic Streaming in Chara". Protoplasma. 188 (1–2): 38–48. doi:10.1007/BF01276794. PMID 11539183.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  53. Wayne, Randy and Staves, Mark P. (1996). "A Down-to-Earth Model of Gravisensing or Newton's Law of Gravitation from the Apple's Perspective". Physiologia Plantarum. 98 (4): 917–921. doi:10.1111/j.1399-3054.1996.tb06703.x.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  54. Wayne, Randy, Staves, Mark P. and Leopold, A. Carl (1992). "The Contribution of the Extracellular Matrix to Gravisensing in Characean Cells" (PDF). Journal of Cell Science. 101: 611–623. PMID 1522145.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  55. Wayne, Randy, Staves, Mark P. and Leopold, A. Carl (1997). "The Effect of the External Medium on the Gravity-Induced Polarity of Cytoplasmic Streaming in Chara corallina (Characeae)" (PDF). American Journal of Botany. 84 (11): 1516–1521. doi:10.2307/2446612. JSTOR 2446612.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  56. Casper, Timothy and Pickard, Barbara G. (1989). "Gravitropism in a Starchless Mutant of Arabidopsis: Implications for the Starch-Statolith Theory of Gravity Sensing". Planta. 177 (2): 185–197. doi:10.1007/BF00392807. PMID 24212341.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  57. Weise, Sean E. and Kiss, John H. (1999). "Gravitropism of Influorescence Stems in Starch-Deficient Mutants of Arabidopsis". International Journal of Plant Sciences. 160 (3): 521–527. doi:10.1086/314142. PMID 11542271.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  58. "Telling Up from Down". New York Times. June 9, 1992. Retrieved June 27, 2012.
  59. Rensberger, Boyce (July 13, 1992). "Getting to the Root of Plant Growth; How Seeds Sprout in the Proper Direction". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on March 9, 2016. Retrieved June 27, 2012.
  60. Wayne, Randy, Staves, Mark P. and Leopold, A. Carl (1997). "The Effect of the External Medium on the Gravitropic Curvature of Rice (ORYZA SATIVA, POACEAE) Roots" (PDF). American Journal of Botany. 84 (11): 1522–1529. doi:10.2307/2446613. JSTOR 2446613.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  61. Wayne, Randy (2012). "A Fundamental, Relativistic and Irreversible Law of Motion: A Unification of Newton's Second Law of Motion and the Second Law of Thermodynamics". African Review of Physics. 7: 115–134. arXiv:1206.3109.
  62. Wayne, Randy (2015). "Radiation Friction: Shedding Light on Dark Energy". African Review of Physics. 10: 363–264. Retrieved September 9, 2019.
  63. Wayne, Randy (2015). "The Equivalence of Mass and Energy: Blackbody Radiation in Uniform Translational Motion". African Review of Physics. 10: 1–9. Retrieved September 9, 2019.
  64. Wayne, Randy (2017). "A Push to Understand Gravity: A Heuristic Model". African Review of Physics. 12: 6–22. Retrieved November 4, 2019.
  65. Wayne, Randy. "Plant Cell Biology: From Astronomy to Zoology". YouTube. Albert R. Mann Library, Cornell University. Retrieved July 26, 2016.
  66. Wayne, Randy. "Light and Video Microscopy". YouTube. Albert R. Mann Library, Cornell University. Retrieved July 26, 2016.
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