Ket language

The Ket /ˈkɛt/[3] language, or more specifically Imbak and formerly known as Yenisei Ostyak /ˈɒstiæk/,[3] is a Siberian language long thought to be an isolate, the sole surviving language of a Yeniseian language family. It is spoken along the middle Yenisei basin by the Ket people.

Not to be confused with Bra–ket notation.
Ket
Остыганна ӄа'
Native toRussia
RegionKrasnoyarsk Krai
Ethnicity1,220 Ket people (2010 census)
Native speakers
213 (2010)[1]
Dené–Yeniseian?
Cyrillic
Language codes
ISO 639-3ket
Glottologkett1243[2]
Linguasphere43-AAA-a

The language is threatened with extinction—the number of ethnic Kets that are native speakers of the language dropped from 1,225 in 1926 to 537 in 1989. According to the UNESCO census, this number has since fallen to 150. A 2005 census reported 485 native speakers, but this number is suspected to be inflated.[4] Another Yeniseian language, Yugh, is believed to have recently become extinct.[5]

Classification

The Ket language is part of the Yeniseian language family. Several linguists, including Joseph Greenberg, proposed a link between Ket, other Yeniseian languages and the Na-Dene language group of North America in his final study about Eurasian languages. In February 2008, the linguist Edward Vajda also submitted a paper on the proposed link between Ket with the Na-Dene languages. Now published in 2010, Vajda's paper has been favorably reviewed by several experts on Na-Dene and Yeniseian languages, including Michael Krauss, Jeff Leer, James Kari, and Heinrich Werner, as well as a number of other well-known linguists, including Bernard Comrie, Johanna Nichols, Victor Golla, Michael Fortescue, and Eric Hamp, so that a broad consensus has formed in support of this connection.

Attempts have been made by Soviet scholars to establish a relationship with either Burushaski or the Sino-Tibetan languages, and it frequently forms part of the Dene–Caucasian hypothesis. None of these attempts has been conclusive. Some experts on Yeniseian remain extremely skeptical and reject the hypothesis (e.g. Stefan Georg).[6]

Documentation

The earliest observations about the language were published by P. S. Pallas in 1788 in a travel diary (Путешествия по разным провинциям Русского Государства Puteshestviya po raznim provintsiyam Russkogo Gosudarstva). M.A. Castrén was one of the last known to study the Kot language. Castrén lived beside the Kan river with five people of Kott, in which is believed was the last remaining people who spoke the language.[7] In 1858, M. A. Castrén published the first grammar and dictionary (Versuch einer jenissei-ostjakischen und Kottischen Sprachlehre), which also included material on the Kot language. During the 19th century, the Ket were mistaken for a tribe of the Finno-Ugric Khanty. A. Karger in 1934 published the first grammar (Кетский язык Ketskij jazyk), as well as a Ket primer (Букварь на кетском языке Bukvar' na ketskom jazyke), and a new treatment appeared in 1968, written by A. Kreinovich.

Phonology

Vowels
Front Central Back
Close iɨu
Mid ɛ1əɔ1
Open a 2
  1. The normally open-mid /ɛ/ and /ɔ/ are pronounced as close-mid [e] and [o], respectively, when they have the high-steady tone.
  2. /a/ freely varies between [æ], [a], [ɐ], and [ɑ].

Consonants

Vajda analyses Ket as having only 12 consonant phonemes:

Bilabial Alveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal
Nasal m n ŋ
Plosive voiceless t k q
voiced b d
Fricative central s ç h
lateral ɮ

It is one of the few languages to lack both /p/ and /ɡ/,[8] along with Arapaho, Goliath and Efik, as well as classical Arabic and some modern Arabic dialects.

There is much allophony, and the phonetic inventory of consonants is essentially as below. This is the level of description reflected by the Ket alphabet.

Bilabial Alveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal
Nasal m n ŋ
Plosive voiceless p t k q ʔ
voiced b d ɡ ɢ
Fricative central voiceless s ç (x) (χ) h
voiced β ʝ ɣ ʁ
lateral ɮ
Flap ɾ
Trill r

Furthermore, all nasal consonants in Ket have voiceless allophones at the end of a monosyllabic word with a glottalized or descending tone (i.e. [m, n, ŋ] turn into [m̥, n̥, ŋ̥]), likewise, [ɮ] becomes [ɬ] in the same situation. Alveolars are often pronounced laminal and possibly palatalized, though not in the vicinity of a uvular consonant. /q/ is normally pronounced with affrication, as [qᵡ].

Tone

Descriptions of Ket vary widely in the number of contrastive tones they report: as many as eight and as few as zero have been counted. Given this wide disagreement, whether or not Ket is a tonal language is debatable,[9] although recent works by Ket specialists Edward Vajda and Stefan Georg defend the existence of tone.[10]

In tonal descriptions, Ket does not employ a tone on every syllable but instead uses one tone per word. Following Vajda's description of Southern Ket, the five basic tones are as follows:[11]

Tone name Glottalized High-Even Rising Falling Falling Rising High-Falling
Tone contour [˧˦ʔ] (34’) [˥] (5) [˩˧.˧˩] (13.31) [˧˩] (31) [˩˧.˥˧] (13.53)
Example [kɛʔt]
"person"		 [sýl]
"blood"		 [su᷈ːl] ([sǔûl])
"hand sled"		 [qàj]
"elk"		 [bə̌ntân]
"mallard ducks"

The glottalized tone features pharyngeal or laryngeal constriction, or a full glottal stop that interrupts the vowel.

Georg's 2007 description of Ket tone is similar to the above, but reduces the basic number of tonemes to four, while moving the rising high-falling tone plus a variant to a class of tonemes only found in multisyllabic words. With some exceptions caused by certain prefixes or clitics, the domain of tones in a multisyllabic word is limited to the first two syllables.[12]

Incorporation

Ket makes significant use of incorporation. Incorporation is not limited to nouns, and can also include verbs, adverbs, adjectives, and bound morphemes found only in the role of incorporated elements. Incorporation also occurs as both a lexicalized process - the combination of verb and incorporate being treated as a distinct lexical element, with a meaning often based around the incorporated element - and a paradigmatic one, where the incorporation is performed spontaneously for particular semantic and pragmatic effect[13] Forms of incorporation include:

  • Nominal incorporation, most commonly used to describe the instrumental part of an action, but sometimes used to describe patients instead. Instrumental incorporation doesn't affect the transitivity of the verb (though there are examples where this form of incorporation is used to describe agentless changes of state), while patient incorporation can make a transitive verb intransitive. Patient incorporation is usually used for patients that are wholly effected by an action (such as being brought into existence by it); more generally affected patients are typically incorporated only when significantly defocused or backgrounded.[14]
  • Verbal incorporation, more specifically the incorporation of verbal infinitives (rather than roots) into the verb complex. This form of incorporation is used to signify aspect and form causatives. Incorporated infinitives may bring incorporated elements of their own into the verb as well.[15]
  • Adjectival incorporation, with an incorporated adjective describing the target or final state of an action.[16]
  • Adverbial incorporation, where a local adverb is used to describe the direction or path of a movement.[17]

Ket alphabet

In the 1930s a Latin-based alphabet was developed and used:

A a Ā ā Æ æ B b Ç ç D d E e Ē ē
Ə ə F f G g H h Ҕ ҕ I i Ī ī J j
K k L l M m N n Ņ ņ Ŋ ŋ O o Ō ō
P p Q q R r S s Ş ş T t U u Ū ū
V v Z z Ƶ ƶ Ь ь

In the 1980s a new, Cyrillic-based, alphabet was created:

А а Б б В в Г г Ӷ ӷ Д д Е е Ё ё
Ж ж З з И и Й й К к Ӄ ӄ Л л М м
Н н Ӈ ӈ О о Ө ө П п Р р С с Т т
У у Ф ф Х х Ц ц Ч ч Ш ш Щ щ Ъ ъ
Ә ә Ы ы Ь ь ’ Э э Ю ю Я я

Decline and current use

Ket people were subjected to collectivization and then eventually sent to Russian-only boarding schools from the 1930s to 1960s. Now, Ket is taught as a subject in some primary schools, but only older adults are fluent and few are raising their children with the language. Kellog, Russia is the only place where Ket is still taught in schools. Special books are provided for grades second through fourth but after those grades there is only Russian Literature to read that describes Ket culture.[18] There are no known monolingual speakers for now.[19] Alexander Kotusov was a Ket folk singer and poet who died in 2019.[20]

References
  1. "Перепись-2010 - Population of the Russian Federation by Languages (in Russian)" (PDF). gks.ru. Russian Bureau of Statistics. Retrieved 1 November 2017.
  2. Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Ket". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  3. Laurie Bauer, 2007, The Linguistics Student's Handbook, Edinburgh
  4. "UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in danger". www.unesco.org. Retrieved 2016-06-03.
  5. "Yug". Ethnologue. Retrieved 2018-05-26.
  6. Sanchez-Mazas, Alicia; Blench, Roger; Ross, Malcolm D.; Peiros, Ilia; Lin, Marie (2008-07-25). Past Human Migrations in East Asia: Matching Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics. Routledge. ISBN 9781134149629.
  7. "A Descriptive Grammar of Ket (Yenisei-Ostyak)". eds.b.ebscohost.com. Retrieved 2017-02-07.
  8. http://wals.info/valuesets/5A-ket
  9. Ian Maddieson, "Tone". The World Atlas of Language Structures Online. http://wals.info/feature/13
  10. Vajda, Edward. "Tone And Phoneme In Ket". Academia.
  11. Vajda (2004), pp. 8-12
  12. Georg 2007, pp. 49, 56-58.
  13. Georg 2007, pp. 233, 235.
  14. Georg 2007, pp. 236.
  15. Georg 2007, pp. 233-234.
  16. Georg 2007, pp. 232-233.
  17. Georg 2007, pp. 233.
  18. Kryukova, Elena (2013). "The Ket Language: from descriptive linguistic to interdisciplinary research". Tomsk Journal of Linguistics & Anthropology. 1: 39.
  19. Vajda, Edward (2006). Loanwords in the World's Languages: a Comparative Handbook. De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 471–500.
  20. Songs of the last Ket (in Russian)

Literature
  • Georg, Stefan (2007). Introduction, Phonology, Morphology. A Descriptive Grammar of Ket (Yenisei-Ostyak). 1. Folkestone, Kent, UK: Global Oriental Ltd. ISBN 978-1-901903-58-4.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  • Karger, N. K. (1934). Кетский язык. — Языки и письменность народов Севера. Ч. III. Moscow, Leningrad.
  • Kreinovich, E. A. (1968). Кетский язык. — Языки народов СССР. Т. V., Leningrad.
  • Vajda, Edward J. (2000). Ket Prosodic Phonology. Languages of the World. 15. Munich: Lincom Europa.
  • Vajda, Edward J. (2004). Ket. Languages of the World. Munich: Lincom Europa. ISBN 3-89586-221-5.
  • Vajda, M. Zinn, E.; Zinn, M. (2004). Morfologicheskii slovar ketskogo glagola: na osnove iuzhno-ketskogo dialekta. = Morphological dictionary of the Ket verb: Southern dialect /.
  • Vajda, Edward J.; Kari, J., Editor; Potter, B. (2010). Siberian Link with Na-Dene Languages The Dene–Yeniseian Connection. Anthropological Papers of the University of Alaska, new series. 5. Fairbanks: University of Alaska Fairbanks, Department of Anthropology. pp. 33–99.
  • Kotorova, Elizaveta, and Andrey Nefedov (eds.) (2015). Comprehensive Ket Dictionary / Большой словарь кетского языка (2 vols). Languages of the World/Dictionaries (LW/D) 57. Munich: Lincom Europa.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.