Canadian Militia

Depiction of a French Canadian militiaman, 1759.

Use of militias in Canada date back to New France. As the militias in New France were formally maintained by the Intendant of New France, the system became a basis for centralized administration in the colony.[5] Local militia captains were appointed by the intendant, and typically assisted the civil administration with road-building, and periodic censuses.[5]

In 1669, King Louis XIV, concerned about the colony's inability to defend itself adequately against raids, ordered the creation of a compulsory militia that would include every fit male between 16 and 60 years of age. They were organized into companies, usually one per church parish, and structured in the same way as a regular French infantry company. The men were noted as excellent shots (most came with their own rifle, powder and bullets), and in better physical condition than regulars, because of their tough life, farming, fishing and hunting. Volunteer militiamen were used to support the regulars and their First Nation allies on lengthy raids, where they absorbed the skirmishing tactics of the latter. However, little time was spent on conventional European drill.[6]

Following the British conquest of New France, local militia units continued to be raised, and support British soldiers stationed in British North America. Members of the militia of the Province of Quebec first saw service with the British during Pontiac's War, when a battalion of three hundred Canadien volunteers took part in Brigadier General John Bradstreet's expedition to Detroit.[7] The battalion was led by former members of the New French troupes de la marine.[7] British authorities also mustered the militia in Quebec during the American Revolutionary War, whose members constituted most of the defenders at the Battle of Quebec.[8] However, Canadien militias saw little expeditionary action during the American Revolution, with Frederick Haldimand, the Governor of Quebec, uncertain if the Canadien militias would remain loyal should they encounter the French Army.[9]

Canadian militia, fencibles, and First Nations during the Battle of the Chateauguay, 1813.

While British North American colonies were expected to maintain a colonial militia, the militias were financed by the British government.[10] Given the British government's preoccupation with Napoleonic France in the early 19th century, militias in the Canadas saw a shortage of supplies and weapons with limited funds provided for the militias during this decade.[10] In 1811, the militia strength of Upper Canada was approximately 11,000, although Issac Brock, the Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada, estimated that only 4,000 could be reliably expected to answer roll call.[11] Early in his tenure as Lieutenant Governor, Brock passed legislation that allowed for him to train 2,000 volunteers, or men chosen by ballot, to serve as the flank companies for the Upper Canadian militia.[11] During the War of 1812, British authorities raised a number of Canadian military and militia units to support the British in defending the Canadas.

In 1840, the sedentary militias of the Canadas was made up of 426 battalions, with 235,000 men registered on militia rolls.[12] Sedentary militia were also present in Maritime colonies, with 40,997 reported in Nova Scotia's militia, while the New Brunswick militia reported 27,532 members in 1845.[12] Prince Edward Island fielded a militia of approximately 8,000 men in 1845.[12] During the Trent Affair in 1861, Nova Scotia revived compulsory militia service, enrolling 59,379 men in the Nova Scotia militia, of which 45,600 were armed.[13]

Sedentary militias were later designated as the Reserve Militia, after the Active Militia were created in 1855. The Militia Act of 1868 extended the Reserve Militia system of the former Province of Canada to the newly formed Canadian dominion.[14] In 1869, the Minister of Militia and Defence, George-Étienne Cartier, reported that 618,896 men were enrolled with the Reserve Militia.[14] Enrolment for the sedentary Reserve Militia last occurred in 1873, although its theoretical practice was not abolished until 1950.

Various uniforms used by members of the Canadian Militia, 1898.

Following Canadian Confederation in July 1867, both PAM, and NPAM were managed by the Canadian Minister of Militia. The Militia Act of 1868 extended the Active Militias system of the former Province of Canada to the newly formed Canadian dominion.[14] In 1869, George-Étienne Cartier reported that 37,170 volunteers were enrolled with the Active Militias.[14] However, funding remained an issue for the militia in 1870s and 1880s, with British officers urging the Canadian government to either increase funds, or curtail enrolment to a level where its units can be sufficiently trained and equipped.[18]

The Active Militias were mobilized on a number of occasions in the latter half of the 19th century, including the Fenian raids of 1870–71, the Wolseley expedition, the North-West Rebellion, and the Second Boer War. The Second Boer War saw more than 8,000 volunteers raised for service in South Africa, from 82 different militia units, including PAM.[19] A number of administrative reforms were instituted after the war, with the establishment of the Canadian Army Service Corps in 1901, and the Canadian Military Engineers, Canadian Army Medical Corps, Canadian Ordnance Corps, and the Signalling Corps in 1903.[20]

From 1875 to 1904, the officer heading the Canadian Militia was the General Officer Commanding the Canadian Militia (GOC), a position legally required to be held by an officer of the British Army. However, serious differences in opinion over divisions of responsibilities between the civil and military branches of the Militia Department would see the post virtually abolished under the Militia Act of 1904.[20]

Infantry equipment used by the Permanent Active Militia, c. 1900s.

The office of the GOC was replaced by the Militia Council, with the Minister of Militia as its President, four military members (Chief of General Staff, the Adjutant General, Quartermaster General, and Master General of the Ordnance), a civilian member (typically the Deputy Minister of Militia), an accountant of the Department, and a civilian secretary.[20] Although modelled after the British Army Council, the Militia Council was purely an advisory body, with the Minister holding supreme authority over it; and the Chief of General Staff becoming the premier military member of the council.[21]

During World War I, the militia was not mobilized, with Canadians serving overseas enlisting with the Canadian Expeditionary Force (CEF), a separate military field force managed by the Ministry of Overseas Military Forces.[22] As World War I drew to a close in 1918, and the CEF expected to disband, plans to re-organize the Canadian militia were initiated, guided by the Otter Commission. The Commission proposed that PAM field a force of six infantry divisions, one cavalry division, supplemented by personnel from NPAM.[23] Additionally, the Otter Commission saw links of perpetuation created, for battle honours earned from units of the CEF with units of the Canadian Militia.[24]

Improvements to both PAM's and NPAM's officer corps were undertaken in the 1930s, with PAM officers directing officer cadets through courses such as the "Advanced Militia Staff Course," beginning in 1935.[25] As a result, the Militia fielded a much larger officer corp in 1939, when compared to 1914; with the Canadian Militia fielded approximately 5,000 officers spread throughout PAM and NPAM.[25] However, training within the Canadian Militia remained an issue, with little regimental or larger formation training taking place during the interwar period.[25]

The Royal Canadian Dragoons leaving Stanley Barracks, 1925. The Dragoons was a cavalry regiment with the Militia.

In 1938, Ian Alistair Mackenzie, the Minister of National Defence, began to encourage General Harry Crerar, Chief of Defence Staff, to plan contingencies for the militia to prepare for expeditionary action, in the event of a war between Germany and the British Empire, without the consent of William Lyon Mackenzie King, the Prime Minister of Canada.[26] Crerar sought to reorganize the Canadian Militia to new standards adopted by the British, mechanize the militia, and prepare PAM, and NPAM for combat in a temperate climate, which was the expected climate they would be operating in.[26] However the General Staff's proposal to prepare a 60,000 man force to assist the British in the event of a war was not presented until 29 August 1939, days before the start of the war.[26]

On the eve of World War II, the Canadian Militia's nominal strength was over 50,000 men, with PAM fielding 455 officers, and 3,714 soldiers of all other ranks; whereas NPAM fielded 5,272 officers, and 41,249 soldiers of all other ranks.[26] However, the Canadian Militia was not prepared to undertake an overseas campaign at the outbreak of World War II. Colonel Charles Perry Stacey, a military historian for the Canadian Army from 1940 to 1959, on the readiness of the Canadian Militia at the eve of the Second World War,

The tiny Permanent Force did not constitute a striking force capable either of counter attack against a major raid or of expeditionary action. The Non-Permanent Active Militia, with its limited strength, obsolescent equipment, and rudimentary training, was incapable of immediate effective action of any sort against a formidable enemy. The two forces together constituted a useful and indeed essential foundation upon which, over a period of months, an army could be built. They offered, however, no means for rapid intervention in an overseas theatre of operations.

— Colonel Charles Perry Stacey[26]

Following the suggestion of General Harry Crerar, on 19 November 1940, the military land forces of Canada were renamed as the Canadian Army through an Order in Council.[27] PAM was reorganized as Canadian Army (Active), whereas NPAM became Canadian Army (Reserve).[28]