United States Military Government of the Philippine Islands

United States Military Government of the Philippine Islands
1898–1902
Great Seal
Great Seal
Location of Philippine Islands in Asia
Status Unincorporated territory of the United States
Capital Manila
Common languages English, Tagalog, and other Philippine languages
Government Military occupational transitional government
President  
• 1898–1901
William McKinley
• 1901–1902
Theodore Roosevelt
Military Governor  
• 1898
Wesley Merritt
• 1898–1900
Elwell S. Otis
• 1900–1901
Arthur MacArthur, Jr.
• 1901–1902
Adna Chaffee
(jointly with Civil Governor William Howard Taft)
Legislature Martial law
(1898-1900)
Philippine Commission
(1900-02)
History  
14 August 1898
10 December 1898
4 February 1899
31 March 1899
16 March 1900
23 March 1901
16 April 1902
1 July 1902
Area
1898 343,385.1 km2 (132,581.7 sq mi)
Population
• 1898
7300000
Preceded by		Succeeded by
Spanish East Indies
Philippine Republic
Insular Government of the Philippine Islands
  1. In 1901, a civil governor was appointed, but the military retained authority in disturbed areas.
  2. An 1898 census is reported by some sources to have yielded a count of 7,832,719 inhabitants.[1] However, the National Statistics Office of the Philippines reports that no census was conducted in that year.[2] Another well regarded source estimates a population of seven million in 1898.[3]

The United States Military Government of the Philippine Islands (Filipino: Pamahalaang Militar ng Estados Unidos sa Kapuluan ng Pilipinas) was a military government in the Philippines established by the United States on August 14, 1898, two days after the capture of Manila, with General Merritt acting as military governor.[4] During military rule (1898–1902), the U.S. military commander governed the Philippines under the authority of the U.S. president as Commander-in-Chief of the United States Armed Forces. After the appointment of a civil Governor-General, the procedure developed that as parts of the country were pacified and placed firmly under American control, responsibility for the area would be passed to the civilian.

General Merritt was succeeded by General Otis as military governor, who in turn was succeeded by General MacArthur. Major General Adna Chaffee was the final military governor. The position of military governor was abolished in July 1902, after which the civil Governor-General became the sole executive authority in the Philippines.[5][6]

Under the military government, an American-style school system was introduced, initially with soldiers as teachers; civil and criminal courts were reestablished, including a supreme court;[7] and local governments were established in towns and provinces. The first local election was conducted by General Harold W. Lawton on May 7, 1899, in Baliuag, Bulacan.[8]

Capture of Manila

Photo of American soldiers guarding a bridge over the Pasig River after the battle, August 13, 1898
"Insurgent (Filipino) soldiers in the Philippines, 1899"(original caption)

By June, U.S. and Filipino forces had taken control of most of the islands, except for the walled city of Intramuros. Admiral Dewey and General Merritt were able to work out a bloodless solution with acting Governor-General Fermín Jáudenes. The negotiating parties made a secret agreement to stage a mock battle in which the Spanish forces would be defeated by the American forces, but the Filipino forces would not be allowed to enter the city. This plan minimized the risk of unnecessary casualties on all sides, while the Spanish would also avoid the shame of possibly having to surrender Intramuros to the Filipino forces.[9] On the eve of the mock battle, General Anderson telegraphed Aguinaldo, "Do not let your troops enter Manila without the permission of the American commander. On this side of the Pasig River you will be under fire".[10]

On August 13, with American commanders unaware that a ceasefire had already been signed between Spain and the U.S. on the previous day, American forces captured the city of Manila from the Spanish in the Battle of Manila.[11][12][13] The battle started when Dewey's ships bombarded Fort San Antonio Abad, a decrepit structure on the southern outskirts of Manila, and the virtually impregnable walls of Intramuros. In accordance with the plan, the Spanish forces withdrew while U.S. forces advanced. Once a sufficient show of battle had been made, Dewey hoisted the signal "D.W.H.B." (meaning "Do you surrender?),[14] whereupon the Spanish hoisted a white flag and Manila was formally surrendered to U.S. forces.[15] This battle marked the end of Filipino-American collaboration, as the American action of preventing Filipino forces from entering the captured city of Manila was deeply resented by the Filipinos. This later led to the Philippine–American War,[16] which would prove to be more deadly and costly than the Spanish–American War.

Spanish–American War ends

John Hay, Secretary of State, signing the memorandum of ratification on behalf of the United States

Article V of the peace protocol signed on August 12 had mandated negotiations to conclude a treaty of peace to begin in Paris not later than October 1, 1898.[17] President McKinley sent a five-man commission, initially instructed to demand no more than Luzon, Guam, and Puerto Rico; which would have provided a limited U.S. empire of pinpoint colonies to support a global fleet and provide communication links.[18] In Paris, the commission was besieged with advice, particularly from American generals and European diplomats, to demand the entire Philippine archipelago.[18] The unanimous recommendation was that "it would certainly be cheaper and more humane to take the entire Philippines than to keep only part of it."[19] On October 28, 1898, McKinley wired the commission that "cessation of Luzon alone, leaving the rest of the islands subject to Spanish rule, or to be the subject of future contention, cannot be justified on political, commercial, or humanitarian grounds.The cessation must be the whole archipeligo or none.The latter is wholly inadmissible, and the former must therefore be required."[20] The Spanish negotiators were furious over the "immodist demands of a conqueror", but their wounded pride was assauged by an offer of twenty million dollars for "Spanish improvements" to the islands. The Spaniards capitulated, and on December 10, 1898, the U.S. and Spain signed the Treaty of Paris, formally ending the Spanish–American War. In Article III, Spain ceded the Philippine archipelago to the United States, as follows: "Spain cedes to the United States the archipelago known as the Philippine Islands, and comprehending the islands lying within the following line: [... geographic description elided ...]. The United States will pay to Spain the sum of twenty million dollars ($20,000,000) within three months after the exchange of the ratifications of the present treaty."[21]

In the U.S., there was a movement for Philippine independence; some said that the U.S. had no right to a land where many of the people wanted self-government. In 1898 Andrew Carnegie, an industrialist and steel magnate, offered to buy the Philippines for $20 million and give it to the Filipinos so that they could be free of United States government.[22]

On November 7, 1900, Spain and the U.S. signed the Treaty of Washington, clarifying that the territories relinquished by Spain to the United States included any and all islands belonging to the Philippine Archipelago, but lying outside the lines described in the Treaty of Paris. That treaty explicitly named the islands of Cagayan Sulu and Sibutu and their dependencies as among the relinquished territories.[23]

Philippine–American War (1899–1902)

Tensions escalate

Gregorio del Pilar and his troops, around 1898.

The Spanish had yielded Iloilo to the insurgents in 1898 for the purpose of troubling the Americans. On January 1, 1899, news had come to Washington from Manila that American forces which had been sent to Iloilo under the command of General Marcus Miller had been confronted by 6,000 armed Filipinos, who refused them permission to land.[24][25] A Filipino official styling himself Presidente Lopez of the Federal Government of the Visayas informed Miller that "foreign troops" would not be landed "without express orders from the central government of Luzon"[25] On December 21, 1898, President McKinley issued a Proclamation of Benevolent Assimilation. General Otis delayed its publication until January 4, 1899, then publishing an amended version edited so as not to convey the meanings of the terms "sovereignty", "protection", and "right of cessation" which were present in the unabridged version.[26] Unknown to Otis, the War Department had also sent an enciphered copy of the Benevolent Assimilation proclamation to General Marcus Miller in Iloilo for informational purposes. Miller assumed that it was for distribution and, unaware that a politically bowdlerized version had been sent to Aguinaldo, published it in both Spanish and Tagalog translations which eventually made their way to Aguinaldo.[27] Even before Aguinaldo received the unaltered version and observed the changes in the copy he had received from Otis, he was upset that Otis had altered his own title to "Military Governor of the Philippines" from "... in the Philippines." Aguinaldo did not miss the significance of the alteration, which Otis had made without authorization from Washington.[28]

Battle of Quingua, April 23, 1899 Philippine–American War

On January 5, Aguinaldo issued a counter-proclamation summarizing what he saw as American violations of the ethics of friendship, particularly as regards the events in Iloilo. The

proclamation concluded as follows:

Battle before Caloocan

After some copies of that proclamation had been distributed, Aguinaldo ordered the recall of undistributed copies and issued another proclamation, which was published the same day in El Heraldo de la Revolucion, the official newspaper of the Philippine Republic. There, he said partly,

Battle of Santa Cruz

Otis, taking these two proclamations as a call to arms, strengthened American observation posts and alerted his troops. In the tense atmosphere, some 40,000 Filipinos fled Manila within

a period of 15 days.[31]

Meanwhile, Felipe Agoncillo, who had been commissioned by the Philippine Revolutionary Government as Minister Plenipotentiary to negotiate treaties with foreign governments, and who had unsuccessfully sought to be seated at the negotiations between the U.S. and Spain in Paris, was now in Washington. On January 6, he filed a request for an interview with the President to discuss affairs in the Philippines. The next day the government officials were surprised to learn that messages to General Otis to deal mildly with the rebels and not to force a conflict had become known to Agoncillo, and cabled by him to Aguinaldo. At the same time came Aguinaldo's protest against General Otis signing himself "Military Governor of the Philippines."[24]

On January 8, Agoncillo gave out this statement:[24]

The Filipino committees in London, Paris and Madrid about this time telegraphed to President McKinley as follows:

Young's Scouts, including Marcus W. Robertson(2nd from right, front row squating), Richard Moses Longfellow(4th from right, front row squating), Medal of Honor recipients. Picture taken in Philippines.

On January 8, Aguinaldo received the following message from Teodoro Sandiko:

The New York Times reported on January 8, that two Americans who had been guarding a waterboat in Iloilo had been attacked, one fatally, and that insurgents were threatening to destroy the business section of the city by fire; and on January 10 that a peaceful solution to the Iloilo issues may result but that Aguinaldo had issued a proclamation threatening to drive the Americans from the islands.[33][34]

Attack on the barracks of Company C of the 13th Minnesota Volunteers by Filipino forces during the Tondo Fire in Manila, 1899

By January 10, insurgents were ready to assume the offensive, but desired, if possible, to provoke the Americans into firing the first shot. They made no secret of their desire for conflict, but increased their hostile demonstrations and pushed their lines forward into forbidden territory. Their attitude is well illustrated by the following extract from a telegram sent by Colonel Cailles to Aguinaldo on January 10, 1899:[35]

Aguinaldo approved the hostile attitude of Cailles, for there is a reply in his handwriting which reads:[35]

On 31 January 1899, The Minister of Interior of the revolutionary First Philippine Republic, Teodoro Sandiko, signed a decree saying that President Aguinaldo had directed that all idle lands be planted to provide food for the people, in view of impending war with the Americans.[36]

American troops guarding the bridge over the River Pasig

Outbreak of general hostilities

Worcester writes that General Otis' account of the opening of active hostilities was as follows:

Emilio Aguinaldo's quarters in Manila following his capture by the Americans.
Surrendered President Aguinaldo boards the U.S.S Vicksburg, 1900.

Other sources name the two specific U.S. soldiers involved in the first exchange of fire as Privates William Grayson and Orville Miller of the Nebraska Volunteers.[38]

Subsequent to the conclusion of the war, after analyzing captured insurgent papers, Major Major J. R. M. Taylor wrote, in part,

Filipino casualties

War

On February 4, Aguinaldo declared "That peace and friendly relations with the Americans be broken and that the latter be treated as enemies, within the limits prescribed by the laws of war."[40] On June 2, 1899, the Malolos Congress enacted and ratified a declaration of war on the United States, which was publicly proclaimed on that same day by Pedro Paterno, President of the Assembly.[41]

As before when fighting the Spanish, the Filipino rebels did not do well in the field. Aguinaldo and his provisional government escaped after the capture of Malolos on March 31, 1899 and were driven into northern Luzon. Peace feelers from members of Aguinaldo's cabinet failed in May when the American commander, General Ewell Otis, demanded an unconditional surrender. In 1901, Aguinaldo was captured and swore allegiance to the United States, marking one end to the war.

First Philippine Commission

President McKinley had appointed a five-person group headed by Dr. Jacob Schurman, president of Cornell University, on January 20, 1899, to investigate conditions in the islands and

1899 political cartoon by Winsor McCay. Uncle Sam (representing the United States), gets entangled with rope around a tree labelled "Imperialism" while trying to subdue a bucking colt or mule labeled "Philippines" while a figure representing Spain walks off over the horizon carrying a bag labeled "$20,000,000".

make recommendations. The three civilian members of the Philippine Commission arrived in Manila on March 4, 1899, a month after the Battle of Manila which had begun armed conflict between U.S. and revolutionary Filipino forces. The commission published a proclamation containing assurances that the U.S. "... is anxious to establish in the Philippine Islands an enlightened system of government under which the Philippine people may enjoy the largest measure of home rule and the amplest liberty."

After meetings in April with revolutionary representatives, the commission requested authorization from McKinley to offer a specific plan. McKinley authorized an offer of a government consisting of "a Governor-General appointed by the President; cabinet appointed by the Governor-General; [and] a general advisory council elected by the people."[42] The Revolutionary Congress voted unanimously to cease fighting and accept peace and, on May 8, the revolutionary cabinet headed by Apolinario Mabini was replaced by a new "peace" cabinet headed by Pedro Paterno. At this point, General Antonio Luna arrested Paterno and most of his cabinet, returning Mabini and his cabinet to power. After this, the commission concluded that "... The Filipinos are wholly unprepared for independence ... there being no Philippine nation, but only a collection of different peoples."[43]

In the report that they issued to the president the following year, the commissioners acknowledged Filipino aspirations for independence; they declared, however, that the Philippines was not ready for it.[44]

William Howard Taft Governor general of the Philippines

Specific recommendations included the establishment of civilian government as rapidly as possible (the American chief executive in the islands at that time was the military governor), including establishment of a bicameral legislature, autonomous governments on the provincial and municipal levels, and a system of free public elementary schools.[47]

Second Philippine Commission

The Second Philippine Commission (the Taft Commission), appointed by McKinley on March 16, 1900, and headed by William Howard Taft, was granted legislative as well as limited executive powers.[48] On September 1, the Taft Commission began to exercise legislative functions.[49] Between September 1900 and August 1902, it issued 499 laws, established a judicial system, including a supreme court, drew up a legal code, and organized a civil service.[50] The 1901 municipal code provided for popularly elected presidents, vice presidents, and councilors to serve on municipal boards. The municipal board members were responsible for collecting taxes, maintaining municipal properties, and undertaking necessary construction projects; they also elected provincial governors.[47]

Establishment of civil government

Governor General William Howard Taft addressing the audience at the Philippine Assembly in the Manila Grand Opera House

On March 3, 1901 the U.S. Congress passed the Army Appropriation Act containing (along with the Platt Amendment on Cuba) the Spooner Amendment which provided the President with legislative authority to establish of a civil government in the Philippines.[51] Up until this time, the President been administering the Philippines by virtue of his war powers.[52] On July 1, 1901, civil government was inaugurated with William H. Taft as the Civil Governor. Later, on February 3, 1903, the U.S. Congress would change the title of Civil Governor to Governor-General.[53]

A highly centralized public school system was installed in 1901, using English as the medium of instruction. This created a heavy shortage of teachers, and the Philippine Commission authorized the Secretary of Public Instruction to bring to the Philippines 600 teachers from the U.S.A. — the so-called Thomasites. Free primary instruction that trained the people for the duties of citizenship and avocation was enforced by the Taft Commission per instructions of President McKinley.[54] Also, the Catholic Church was disestablished, and a considerable amount of church land was purchased and redistributed.

Official end to the war

The town of Jaro in the subdued Philippines prepared for the immediate arrival of the governor general William H. Taft.

The Philippine Organic Act of July 1902 approved, ratified, and confirmed McKinley's Executive Order establishing the Philippine Commission, and also stipulated that the bicameral Philippine Legislature would be established composed of an elected lower house, the Philippine Assembly and the appointed Philippine Commission as the upper house. The act also provided for extending the United States Bill of Rights to the Philippines.[47][55]

On July 2, 1902 the Secretary of War telegraphed that the insurrection against the sovereign authority of the U.S. having come to an end, and provincial civil governments having been established, the office of Military Governor was terminated.[6] On July 4, Theodore Roosevelt, who had succeeded to the U.S. Presidency after the assassination of President McKinley on September 5, 1901 proclaimed a full and complete pardon and amnesty to all persons in the Philippine archipelago who had participated in the conflict.[6][56]

On April 9, 2002, Philippine President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo proclaimed that the Philippine–American War had ended on April 16, 1902 with the surrender of General Miguel Malvar, and declared the centennial anniversary of that date as a national working holiday and as a special non-working holiday in the Province of Batangas and in the Cities of Batangas, Lipa and Tanaun.[57]

Post-1902 hostilities

Some sources have suggested that the war unofficially continued for nearly a decade, since bands of guerrillas, quasi-religious armed groups and other resistance groups continued to roam the countryside, still clashing with American Army or Philippine Constabulary patrols. American troops and the Philippine Constabulary continued hostilities against such resistance groups until 1913.[58] Some historians consider these unofficial extensions to be part of the war.[59]

Comparisons with the First Philippine Republic

United States Military Government  Philippine Republic
Established 14 August 1898 23 January 1899
Constitutional Document War powers authority of the President Malolos Constitution
Capital Manila Malolos, Bulacan
Head of State President of the United States President of the Philippines
Head of Government Military Governor of the Philippine Islands Prime Minister of the Philippines


Legislative Martial Law (1898-1900)
Philippine Commission (1900-1902)		 National Assembly
Military United States Armed Forces Philippine Republican Army
Currency Peso Peso
Official Language(s) English Spanish, Tagalog

See also

References

Citations

  1. ↑ "PHILIPPINES: More People Practice Tribal Religions Today, than in 1521. However…". The ASWANG Project. Retrieved 2016-12-25.
  2. ↑ "Population of the Philippines : />Census Years 1799 to 2010". National Statistics Office of the Philippines. Archived from the original on 2012-07-04. Retrieved 2012-06-27.
  3. ↑ Tucker, Spencer (2009). The Encyclopedia of the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO. p. 719. ISBN 978-1-85109-951-1.
  4. ↑ Halstead 1898, pp. 110–112
  5. ↑ Elliott 1917, p. 509.
  6. 1 2 3 "GENERAL AMNESTY FOR THE FILIPINOS; Proclamation Issued by the President" (PDF). The New York Times. July 4, 1902.
  7. ↑ Otis, Elwell Stephen (1899). "Annual report of Maj. Gen. E.S. Otis, U.S.V., commanding Department of the Pacific and 8th Army Corps, military governor in the Philippine Islands". Annual Report of the Major-General Commanding the Army. 2. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. p. 146.
  8. ↑ Zaide 1994, p. 279Ch.21
  9. ↑ Karnow 1990, p. 123
  10. ↑ Agoncillo 1990, p. 196
  11. ↑ The World of 1898: The Spanish–American War, U.S. Library of Congress, retrieved 2014-06-15
  12. ↑ The World of 1898: the Spanish–American War, U.S. Library of Congress, retrieved October 10, 2007
  13. ↑ "Our flag is now waving over Manila", San Francisco Chronicle, retrieved December 20, 2008
  14. ↑ Trask 1996, p. 419
  15. ↑ Karnow 1990, pp. 123–4, Wolff 2006, p. 119
  16. ↑ Lacsamana 2006, p. 126.
  17. ↑ Halstead 1898, pp. 176–178Ch.15
  18. 1 2 Miller 1984, p. 20
  19. ↑ Miller 1984, pp. 20–1
  20. ↑ Miller 1984, p. 24
  21. ↑ Kalaw 1927, pp. 430–445 Appendix D
  22. ↑ Andrew Carnegie timeline of events at PBS.org
  23. ↑ "TREATY BETWEEN SPAIN AND THE UNITED STATE FOR CESSION OF OUTLYING ISLANDS OF THE PHILIPPINES" (PDF). University of the Philippines. November 7, 1900. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 26, 2012.
  24. 1 2 3 4 Halstead 1898, p. 316
  25. 1 2 Miller 1984, p. 50
  26. ↑ The text of the amended version published by General Otis is quoted in its entirety in José Roca de Togores y Saravia; Remigio Garcia; National Historical Institute (Philippines) (2003). Blockade and siege of Manila. National Historical Institute. pp. 148–50. ISBN 978-971-538-167-3.
    See also Wikisource:Letter from E.S. Otis to the inhabitants of the Philippine Islands, January 4, 1899.
  27. ↑ Wolff 2006, p. 200
  28. ↑ Miller 1984, p. 52
  29. ↑ Agoncillo 1997, pp. 356–7.
  30. ↑ Agoncillo 1997, p. 357.
  31. ↑ Agoncillo 1997, pp. 357–8.
  32. ↑ Taylor 1907, p. 39
  33. ↑ "BLOODSHED AT ILOILO; Two Americans Attacked and One Fatally Wounded by Natives." (PDF), The New York Times, January 8, 1899, retrieved 2008-02-10
  34. ↑ "THE PHILIPPINE CLIMAX; Peaceful Solution of the Iloilo Issue May Result To-day. AGUINALDO'S SECOND ADDRESS He Threatened to Drive the Americans from the Islands -- Manifesto Was Recalled" (PDF), The New York Times, January 10, 1899, retrieved 2008-02-10
  35. 1 2 Worcester 1914, p. 93Ch.4
  36. ↑ Guevara 1972, p. 124
  37. ↑ Worcester 1914, p. 96Ch.4
  38. ↑ Blitz 2000, p. 32, Blanchard 1996, p. 130
  39. ↑ Taylor 1907, p. 5
  40. ↑ Halstead 1918, p. 318Ch.28
  41. ↑ Kalaw 1927, pp. 199–200Ch.7
  42. ↑ Golay 1997, p. 49.
  43. ↑ Golay 1997, pp. 50–51.
  44. ↑ Worcester 1914, p. 199Ch.9
  45. ↑ "The Philippines : As viewed by President McKinley's Special Commissioners". The Daily Star. 7 (2214). Fredricksburg, Va. November 3, 1899.
  46. ↑ Report Philippine Commission, Vol. I, p. 183.
  47. 1 2 3 Seekins 1993
  48. ↑ Kalaw 1927, p. 453Appendix F
  49. ↑ Zaide 1994, p. 280Ch.21
  50. ↑ Chronology for the Philippine Islands and Guam in the Spanish–American War, U.S. Library of Congress, retrieved 2008-02-16
  51. ↑ Piedad-Pugay, Chris Antonette. "The Philippine Bill of 1902: Turning Point in Philippine Legislation". National Historical Commission of the Philippines. Retrieved 9 July 2013.
  52. ↑ Jernegan 2009, pp. 57–58
  53. ↑ Zaide 1994, p. 281Ch.21
  54. ↑ Historical Perspective of the Philippine Educational System, RP Department of education, archived from the original on 2011-07-16, retrieved 2008-03-11
  55. ↑ The Philippine Bill of July 1902, Chan Robles law library, July 1, 1902, retrieved 2010-07-31
  56. ↑ Worcester 1914, p. 180Ch.9
  57. ↑ "Presidential Proclamation No. 173 S. 2002". Official Gazette. April 9, 2002.
  58. ↑ "PNP History", Philippine National Police, Philippine Department of Interior and Local Government, archived from the original on 2008-06-17, retrieved 29 August 2009
  59. ↑ Constantino 1975, pp. 251–3

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