Philanthropy in the United States

Philanthropy has played a major role in American history, from the Puritans of early Massachusetts who founded Harvard College, down to the present day.[1] Since the late 19th century philanthropy has been a major source of income for religion, medicine and health care, fine arts and performing arts, as well as educational institutions.

Charitable giving in the USA, 2009[2]

Colonial era

Established and voluntary religion

Taxes from local and colonial government supported the established churches in New England, which were Congregational, and in the South, which were Anglican. A much faster rate of growth appeared in entirely voluntary religious denominations, especially the Methodists and Baptists, And among the Presbyterians especially on the frontier. German and Dutch immigrants supported their Reformed churches in Pennsylvania and New York without tax money.[3]

The first corporation founded in the 13 Colonies was Harvard College (1636), designed primarily to them train young men for the clergy. A leading theorist was the Puritan theologian Cotton Mather (1662-1728), who in 1710 published a widely read essay, Bonifacius, or an Essay to Do Good. Mather worried that the original idealism had eroded, so he advocated philanthropic benefaction as a way of life. Though his context was Christian, his idea was also characteristically American and explicitly Classical, on the threshold of the Enlightenment.

Let no man pretend to the Name of A Christian, who does not Approve the proposal of A Perpetual Endeavour to Do Good in the World.… The Christians who have no Ambition to be [useful], Shall be condemned by the Pagans; among whom it was a Term of the Highest Honour, to be termed, A Benefactor; to have Done Good, was accounted Honourable. The Philosopher [i.e., Aristotle ], being asked why Every one desired so much to look upon a Fair Object! He answered That it was a Question of a Blind man. If any man ask, as wanting the Sense of it, What is it worth the while to Do Good in the world! I must Say, It Sounds not like the Question of a Good man.[4]

Mather’s many practical suggestions for doing good had strong civic emphases—founding schools, libraries, hospitals, useful publications, etc. They were not primarily about rich people helping poor people, but about private initiatives for public good, focusing on quality of life. Two young Americans whose prominent lives, they later said, were influenced by Mather’s book, were Benjamin Franklin and Paul Revere.

Ethnic and religious groups

Voluntary charitable organizations established by ethnic and religious groups, for their own people, originated in the colonial era and crew much stronger in the 19th century. As assimilation took place most of the European groups merged into a general "American" population; the ethnic charitable societies sharply declined by 1900. Minority ethnic groups and races that did not amalgamate extensively continued their separate operations, as did religious charities into the 21st century.

The Puritans of New England and the Quakers Of Pennsylvania were the pioneers before 1700 in establishing charitable institutions, philanthropic operations, and their own schools. Eventually most of the many religious denominations set up charitable institutions as well as their own seminaries or colleges. The first ethnic group to mobilize served as a model for many others – it was the Scots Charitable Society of Boston, started in 1657. In 1754 the Episcopal Charitable Society of Boston Was oriented toward recent English immigrants. In 1768, the Charitable Irish Society of Boston opened for Irish Protestants. Eventually German and French immigrants set up their own benevolent societies.[5][6]

Benjamin Franklin

Benjamin Franklin (1706 – 1790) was an activist and theorist of American philanthropy. He was much influenced by Daniel Defoe's An essay upon projects (1697) and Mather's Bonifacius. Franklin specialized in motivating his fellow Philadelphians into projects for the betterment of the city. As a young tradesman in 1727, he formed the "Junto": a 12-member club that weekly to consider current issues and needs. One of the qualifications for membership was the "love [of] mankind in general". In 1729 he founded a weekly newspaper the Philadelphia Gazette, and for the next thirty years he used the Junto as a sort of think-tank to generate and vet philanthropic ideas, and the Gazette to test and mobilize public support, recruit volunteers, and fund-raise. his system Led to the creation of America'sAmerica’s first subscription library (1731), a volunteer fire association, a fire insurance association, (1752—through fundraising with a challenge grant), the paving and patrolling of public streets, the finance and construction of a civic meeting house, and many others. A world-class physicist himself, he promoted scientific organizations including the Philadelphia Academy (1751)--which became the University of Pennsylvania – as well as the American Philosophical Society (1743) to enable scientific researchers from all 13 colonies to communicate.[7] Fellow diplomat John Adams reported that in France "there was scarcely a peasant or citizen" who "did not consider him as a friend to humankind."[8]

19th century

The new nation had weak national, state and local governments. A strong civil society was built by Volunteers in a culture of collaboration. French observer Alexis de Tocqueville called them, "voluntary associations." They permeated American life, as a distinguishing feature of the American character and culture, they were the key to American democracy. Americans, he said, did not rely on others—government, an aristocracy, or the church—to solve their public problems; rather, they did it themselves, through voluntary associations, which is to say, philanthropy, which was characteristically democratic.[9]

By the 1820s, newly rich American businessmen were establishing philanthropic work, especially with respect to private colleges and hospitals. George Peabody (1795-1869) was the acknowledged father of modern philanthropy. A financier based in Baltimore and London, in the 1860s, he began to endowi libraries and museums in the United Statesl he also funded housing for poor people in London. He was the model for Andrew Carnegie and many others.[10][11]

In the Jewish community, ethnic and religious identities overlapped heavily, Although there was a sharp dichotomy. By the 1850s thye German-based Reform Jewish community was well established. It operated operated retail stores and banks in small towns and cities across the country and practically owned the garment industry. They were typically conservative Republicans. In sharp contrast after 1880 came a much poorer, Yiddish-based Orthodox Jewish immigration that at first heavily concentrated in New York City. It included the garment workers employed by German Jews, and strongly supported socialism.[12] The German element set up extensive charitable institutions; generously giving money and volunteer time of charity a high prestige activity. By 1920 the German and Yiddish elements were far apart in religion, but were coming together in terms of philanthropy and charity.[13] Representative of many charitable organizations in New York was the United Hebrew Charities (UHC). It was founded in 1874 by the merger of numerous older German Jewish groups.[14] By 1890 it was oriented toward the poor Yiddish element, providing 15,000 house calls by doctors and nurses, giving out 5600 prescriptions and 440 bottles of cod liver oil. After several more mergers it continues to still operate as the Jewish Board of Family and Children's Services.[15]

Local millionaires

By the late 19th century, about a third of the successful local businessman were making philanthropic donations. Albert Shaw editor of the magazine American Review of Reviews in 1893 examined philanthropic activities of millionaires in several major cities. The highest rate was Baltimore where 49% of the millionaires were active givers; New York City ranked last. Cincinnati millionaires favored musical and artistic ventures; Minneapolis millionaires gave to the state university in the public library; Philadelphians often gave to overseas relief, and the education of blacks and Indians. Boston had a weak profile, apart from donations to Harvard and the Massachusetts General Hospital. [16] Railroad leaders seldom focused on local issues, since they had responsibility for much larger territories. They approve the work of the railroad YMCAs in uplifting the labor force, though they seldom gave them any corporate money. One exception came in 1882 when the president of the Illinois Central Railroad provided a salary of $50 a month for six months for a YMCA Evangelist in Cairo, Illinois, hoping "he will be able to accomplish some good in that ungodly place." Executives rarely used the railroad's financial resources for philanthropic goals. Occasionally they donated land for public schools or colleges, assuming it would have a positive impact on the selling price of their nearby lands.[17]

Andrew Carnegie's philanthropy. Puck magazine cartoon by Louis Dalrymple, 1903

Andrew Carnegie

Andrew Carnegie (1835–1919) was the most influential leader of philanthropy on a national (rather than local) scale. After selling his giant steel company in the 1890s he devoted himself to establishing philanthropic organizations, and making direct contributions to many educational cultural and research institutions. His final and largest project was the Carnegie Corporation of New York, founded in 1911 with a $25 million endowment, later enlarged to $135 million. In all he gave away $350 million, or 90% of his fortune.[18]

The establishment of public libraries in the United States, Britain, and in dominions and colonies of the British Empire started a legacy that still operates on a daily basis for millions of people. The first Carnegie library opened in 1883 in Dunfermline, Scotland. His method was to build and stock a modern library,on condition that the local authority provided site and keep it in operation. In 1885, he gave $500,000 to Pittsburgh for a public library, and in 1886, he gave $250,000 to Allegheny City for a music hall and library, and $250,000 to Edinburgh, Scotland, for a free library. In total Carnegie gave $55 million to some 3,000 libraries, in 47 American states and overseas. As VanSlyck (1991) shows, the last years of the 19th century saw acceptance of the idea that libraries should be available to the American public free of charge. However the design of the idealized free library was at the center of a prolonged and heated debate. On one hand, the library profession called for designs that supported efficiency in administration and operation; on the other, wealthy philanthropists favored buildings that reinforced the paternalistic metaphor and enhanced civic pride. Between 1886 and 1917, Carnegie reformed both library philanthropy and library design, encouraging a closer correspondence between the two. Using the corporation as his model, Carnegie introduced many of the philanthropic practices of the modern foundation. At the same time, he rejected the rigid social and spatial hierarchy of the 19th-century library. In over 1,600 buildings that he funded and in hundreds of others influenced by its forms, Carnegie helped create an American public library type that embraced the planning principles espoused by librarians while extending a warmer welcome to the reading public.[19][20] There was some opposition, for example in Canada where anti-American and labour spokesman opposed his libraries, in fear of the influence of a powerful American, and in protest against his breaking a strike in 1892.[21]

Carnegie was in fact transforming his wealth into cultural power independent of Governmental or political controls. However he transcended national boundaries – he identified so much with Britain that at one point he thought of running for Parliament. In Canada and Britain he worked with like-minded local intellectual and cultural leaders who shared his basic values to promote an urgently needed Canadian or British cultural, intellectual, and educational infrastructure. In those countries, the rich industrialists rarely supported national philanthropy.[22] He also set up numerous permanent foundations, especially in pursuit of world peace, such as the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace formed in 1910 with a $10 million endowment.[23]

In Gospel of Wealth (1889), Carnegie proselytized the rich about their responsibilities to society.[24] His homily had an enormous influence in its day, and into the 21st century.[25][26] One early disciple was Phoebe Hearst, wife of the founder of the Hearst dynasty in San Francisco. She expanded the Carnegie approach to include women declaring that leisured women had a sacred duty to give to causes, especially progressive education and reform, that would benefit their communities, help those excluded or marginalized from America's mainstream, and advance women's careers as reformers and political leaders.[27]

1900 to 1980

Prominent American philanthropists of the early 20th century were John D. Rockefeller and his son, Julius Rosenwald (1862-1932)[28][29] and Margaret Olivia Slocum Sage (1828-1918)[30].

Rockefeller network

The senior John D. Rockefeller (1839-1937) retired from business in the 1890s; he and his son John D. Rockefeller Jr. (1874-1960) made large-scale national philanthropy systematic especially regarding the study and application of modern medicine, higher, education and scientific research. Of the $530 million the elder Rockefeller gave away, $450 million went to medicine.[31] Their top advisor Frederick Taylor Gates designed several very large philanthropies that were staffed by experts who designed ways to attack problems systematically rather than let the recipients decide how to deal with the problem.[32]

One of the largest of the Rockefeller philanthropies was the General Education Board which focused on higher education medical school, and Uplift of the poverty-stricken rural South, both black and white. It funded rural schools, helped modernize farming practices, and work hard to eradicate hookworm hookworm. It promoted the county agent system run by the U.S. Department of Agriculture that brought research from state agricultural experiment stations into actual operation on millions of farms. Rockefeller gave it $180 million starting in 1903. Its head Frederick Gates envisioned "The Country School of To-Morrow," wherein "young and old will be taught in practicable ways how to make rural life beautiful, intelligent, fruitful, recreative, healthful, and joyous."[33] By 1934 the Board was making grants of $5.5 million a year. It spent nearly all its money by 1950 and closed in 1964.[34]

Hoover in Europe

The Commission for Relief in Belgium (CRB) was an international (predominantly American) organization that arranged for the supply of food to German-occupied Belgium and northern France during the First World War. It was led by Herbert Hoover.[35] Between 1914 and 1919, the CRB operated entirely with voluntary efforts and was able to feed 11,000,000 Belgians by raising the necessary money, obtaining voluntary contributions of money and food, shipping the food to Belgium and controlling its there, For example, the CRB shipped 697,116,000 pounds of flour to Belgium.[36] Biographer George Nash finds that by the end of 1916, Hoover "stood preeminent in the greatest humanitarian undertaking the world had ever seen."[37] Biographer William Leuchtenburg adds, "He had raised and spent millions of dollars, with trifling overhead and not a penny lost to fraud. At its peak, his organization was feeding nine million Belgians and French a day.[38] When the U.S. entered the war President Wilson gave Hoover charge of the American food supply.

When the war ended in late 1918, Wilson gave Hoover control of the American Relief Administration (ARA), with the mission of finding food and coal for Central and Eastern Europe. The ARA fed millions.[39] U.S. government funding of $100 million for the ARA expired in the summer of 1919, and Hoover transformed the ARA into a private organization, raising millions of dollars from private donors. He had numerous efficient aides, such as Anson Goodyear, who handled coal supplies in Austria, Hungary and Poland. According to Kendrick Clements:

The gregarious, energetic, and ingenious Goodyear cheerfully accepted Hoover's orders to do anything necessary to get the coal moving. Employing his native charm and his authority to provide or withhold food shipments, he calmed strikes and opened borders. At one point, he got Hoover to send him $25,000 worth of tobacco to distribute among miners. Within a month, his unorthodox methods contributed to doubling coal production in Central Europe.[40]

Under the auspices of the ARA, the European Children's Fund fed millions of starving children. When attacked for distributing food to Russia, which was under Bolshevik control, Hoover snapped, "Twenty million people are starving. Whatever their politics, they shall be fed!"[41][42]

Ford Foundation

The Ford Foundation was founded in 1936, and after the deaths of Edsel Ford and Henry Ford it was given by the family all of the non-voting shares of the Ford Motor Company. The family kept all the voting shares, which although far fewer in number, assured its continuous control of the corporation. Ford's profits, dividends, and increases in stock value went overwhelmingly to the Foundation. In 1950 the family gave up control of the Foundation, Keeping a few seats on the board until 1976. In 1955 the Foundation sold most of its Ford shares. By then it passed the Rockefeller Foundation to become the largest philanthropy, with very large scale projects in the United States and around the world. Domestically, it focused on inner-city revitalization, the development of public broadcasting, and support for the arts. It invested heavily in graduate training programs in American and European research universities, especially in promoting international studies. Civil rights and aid to minority groups became a major priority after 1950. It started with an effort had building minority communities and promoting integration. However by the 1970s it had switched to a top-down strategy of training new minority leaders. One result was the support for Black Power elements hostile to integration, such as CORE, as well as black studies programs on campuses. Another was resentment especially as Jewish leaders were pushed out of the civil rights movement by the new black generation.[43] Outside the United States, it established a network of human rights organizations, promoted democracy, gave large numbers of fellowships for young leaders to study in the United States.

Recent philanthropists

The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation has awarded more than $6 billion since its first grants in 1978.[44] It has an endowment of $6.3 billion and provides approximately $270 million annually in grants and impact investments. It is best known for the annual MacArthur Fellows Program, often dubbed "genius grants", which makes $625,000 no-strings-attached awards annually to about two dozen creative individuals in diverse fields.[45]

Gates and Buffett

During the past few years, computer entrepreneur Bill Gates, who co-founded Microsoft, and billionaire investor and Berkshire Hathaway Chairman Warren Buffett have donated many billions of dollars to charity and have challenged their wealthy peers to donate half of their assets to philanthropic causes. The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation has led campaigns to eradicate malaria and river blindness, and Buffett donation $31 billion in 2006 to the Gates Foundation.[46]

Financier Ronald Perelman signed the Gates-Buffett Pledge[47] in August 2010, committing up to half his assets to be designated for the benefit of charitable causes (after his family and children have been provided for), and gave $70 million to charity in 2008 alone.

Phil Knight, a co-founder of Nike Corporation, and his wife Penny, have given or pledged more than $2 billion. Oregon Health and Science University, Stanford University and the University of Oregon have received the bulk of their philanthropy.[48]

In December 2015, Mark Zuckerberg and his spouse Priscilla Chan pledged to donate over the decades 99% of their Facebook shares, then valued at $45 billion, to the Chan Zuckerberg Initiative, their new charitable foundation with focuses on health and education.[49]

Female philanthropists

Rosalind P. Walter became a noted philanthropist during the latter part of the 20th century in collaboration with, and independently of, her husband, Henry Glendon Walter, Jr. Best known for her support of public television programming in the United States, she has also served as a trustee for the American Museum of Natural History, Long Island University and the Paley Center for Media.[50][51]

21st century efforts

Trends in philanthropy have been affected in various ways by a technological and cultural change. Today, many donations are made through the Internet (see also donation statistics).[52]

The Indiana University Center on Philanthropy has reported that approximately 65% of household earning $100,000 or less donate to charity, and nearly every household exceeding that amount donated to charity.[53] More particularly, according to studies by the Chronicle of Philanthropy, the rich (those making over $100,000 a year) give a smaller share, averaging 4.2%, to charity than those poorer (between $50,000 - $75,000 a year), who give an average of 7.6%.[54][55]

Studies reported in The Chronicle of Philanthropy have indicated that the rich—those making over $100,000 a year—give a smaller share of their income to charity (4.2% on average) than those making $50,000–$100,000 a year.[54][55]

See also

Notes and references

  1. ↑ Robert H. Bremner, American Philanthropy (1960)
  2. ↑ Info graphic courtesy GiveWell.
  3. ↑ Patricia U. Bonomi, Under the Cope of Heaven: Religion, Society, and Politics in Colonial America (1988) online edition
  4. ↑ Cotton Mather (1825). Essays to do Good addressed to all Christians, whether in public or private capacities. p. 51.
  5. ↑ Walter I. Trattner, From Poor Law to Welfare State (6th ed. 1999) pp 30-35.
  6. ↑ Erna Risch, "Immigrant aid societies before 1820." Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 60#1 (1936): 15-33. online
  7. ↑ Robert T. Grimm, ed. (2002). Notable American Philanthropists: Biographies of Giving and Volunteering. pp. 100–3.
  8. ↑ David McCullough (2012). John Adams. p. 250.
  9. ↑ Bob Edwards; et al. (2001). Beyond Tocqueville: Civil Society and the Social Capital Debate in Comparative Perspective. UP of New England. p. 23.
  10. ↑ Grimm, ed. (2002). Notable American Philanthropists: Biographies of Giving and Volunteering. pp. 243–45.
  11. ↑ Elizabeth Schaaf, “George Peabody: His Life and Legacy, 1795–1869,” Maryland Historical Magazine 90#3 (1995) pp 268-285.
  12. ↑ Moses Rischin, The Promised City: New York's Jews, 1870-1914 (1962) pp 95-111.
  13. ↑ Hasia R. Diner, The Jews of the United States, 1654 to 2000 (2004) pp 135-38.
  14. ↑ Thomas Adam, ed. (2005). Germany and the Americas: G-N. pp. 16–18.
  15. ↑ Marvin Olasky, The Tragedy of American Compassion (1992) pp 84-85
  16. ↑ Robert H. Bremner, American philanthropy (U of Chicago Press, 1988) p 109; full text of Albert Shaw, "American Millionaires and Their Public Gifts," Review of Reviews (February 1893), pp 48-60 [https://sites.hks.harvard.edu/fs/phall/04.%20Bostonization.pdf is online here
  17. ↑ Thomas C. Cochran, Railroad leaders, 1845 - 1890; the business mind in action (1953) pp 210-12.
  18. ↑ Joseph Frazier Wall, Andrew Carnegie (1970) pp 882-84.
  19. ↑ Abigail A. VanSlyck, "'The Utmost Amount of Effectiv Accommodation': Andrew Carnegie and the Reform of the American Library", Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians (1991) 50#4 pp. 359–383 in JSTOR.
  20. ↑ Peter Mickelson, . "American society and the public library in the thought of Andrew Carnegie." Journal of Library History 10.2 (1975): 117-138.
  21. ↑ Susan Goldenberg, "Dubious Donations," Beaver" (May 2008) 88#2 pp 34-40
  22. ↑ Jeffrey D. Brison, Rockefeller, Carnegie, and Canada: American Philanthropy and the Arts and Letters in Canada (McGill-Queen's UP, 2005)
  23. ↑ David S. Patterson,"Andrew Carnegie's quest for world peace." Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 114.5 (1970): 371-383. online
  24. ↑ Andrew Carnegie, "Wealth." The North American Review Vol. 148, No. 391 (June, 1889), pp. 653-664 online
  25. ↑ Michael Moody; Beth Breeze, eds. (2016). The Philanthropy Reader. Taylor & Francis. p. 171.
  26. ↑ David Callahan, The Givers: Wealth, Power, and Philanthropy in a New Gilded Age (2017); p 218 tells how Warren Buffett gave a copy of Carnegie's essay to Bill Gates.
  27. ↑ Alexandra M. Nickliss, "Phoebe Apperson Hearst's" Gospel of Wealth," 1883––1901." Pacific Historical Review 71.4 (2002): 575-605.
  28. ↑ Grimm, ed. (2002). Notable American Philanthropists. pp. 277–79.
  29. ↑ Peter M. Ascoli, Julius Rosenwald: The Man Who Built Sears, Roebuck and Advanced the Cause of Black Education in the American South (2006)
  30. ↑ Ruth Crocker, Mrs. Russell Sage Women's Activism and Philanthropy in Gilded Age and Progressive Era America (2003)
  31. ↑ Peter J. Johnson and John Ensor Harr, The Rockefeller Century: Three Generations of America's Greatest Family (1988)
  32. ↑ Dwight Burlingame (2004). Philanthropy in America: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia, vol 2. ABC-CLIO. p. 419.
  33. ↑ Frederick T. Gates. "The Country School Of To-Morrow," Occasional Papers, No. 1 (1913) online
  34. ↑ Raymond Blaine Fosdick, Adventures in Giving: The Story of the General Education Board (1962).
  35. ↑ George H. Nash, "An American Epic: Herbert Hoover and Belgian Relief in World War I," Prologue (1989) 21#1 pp 75-86
  36. ↑ David Burner, Herbert Hoover: The Public Life (1979) pp 72-95.
  37. ↑ George H. Nash, The Life of Herbert Hoover: The Humanitarian, 1914-1917 (1988) p 249.
  38. ↑ William E. Leuchtenburg (2009). Herbert Hoover. p. 30.
  39. ↑ Burner, Hoover pp 114-37.
  40. ↑ Kendrick A. Clements (2010). The Life of Herbert Hoover: Imperfect Visionary, 1918–1928. p. 18.
  41. ↑ Leuchtenburg (2009). Herbert Hoover. p. 58.
  42. ↑ Frank M. Surface and Raymond L. Bland, American food in the world war and reconstruction period : operations of the organizations under the direction of Herbert Hoover, 1914 to 1924 (1932) online; 1034 detailed pages
  43. ↑ Karen Ferguson, "Organizing the Ghetto: The Ford Foundation, CORE, and White Power in the Black Power Era, 1967–1969." Journal of Urban History 34#1 (2007): 67-100; expanded in Karen Ferguson, Top Down: The Ford Foundation, Black Power, and the Reinvention of Racial Liberalism (2013)
  44. ↑ Nancy Kriplen, The Eccentric Billionaire: John D. MacArthur--Empire Builder, Reluctant Philanthropist, Relentless Adversary (2008).
  45. ↑ Conrad, Cecilia (September 20, 2013). "Five Myths about the MacArthur 'Genius Grants'". The Washington Post.
  46. ↑ "Gates: Buffett gift may help cure worst diseases". MSNBC. 2006-06-26. Retrieved 2008-05-20.
  47. ↑ "Chronicle". Forbes. 2010-08-04.
  48. ↑ Rogoway, Mike. "Phil and Penny Knight's charitable contributions top $2 billion". The Oregonian. Retrieved 6 July 2018.
  49. ↑ "Facebook's Mark Zuckerberg to give away 99% of shares". BBC News Online. December 1, 2015. Retrieved January 16, 2016.
  50. ↑ Steinhauer, Jennifer. "A Mystery Donor: Who is Rosalind P. Walter?", in "F.Y.I." New York, New York: The New York Times, February 27, 1994.
  51. ↑ "Paid Notice: Deaths Walter, Henry G., Jr." New York, New York: The New York Times, November 15, 2000.
  52. ↑ "The 2011 Online Giving Report, presented by Steve MacLaughlin, Jim O'Shaughnessy, and Allison Van Diest" (PDF). blackbaud.com. February 2012. Retrieved January 2013. Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  53. ↑ Pallotta, Dan (September 15, 2012). "Why Can't We Sell Charity Like We sell Perfume?". The Wall Street Journal.
  54. 1 2 Frank, Robert (August 20, 2012). "The Rich Are Less Charitable Than the Middle Class: Study". CNBC. Retrieved February 21, 2014.
  55. 1 2 Kavoussi, Bonnie. "Rich People Give A Smaller Share Of Their Income To Charity Than Middle-Class Americans Do". The Huffington Post. Retrieved February 21, 2014.

Further reading

  • Bremner, Robert H. "Private philanthropy and public needs: Historical perspective." in Commission on Private Philanthropy and Public Needs, Research Papers (1977) vol 1 pp 89-113.
  • Burlingame, D.F. Ed. (2004). Philanthropy in America: A comprehensive historical encyclopaedia (3 vol. ABC Clio).
  • Curti, Merle E. American philanthropy abroad: a history (Rutgers UP, 1963).
  • Grimm, Robert T. Notable American Philanthropists: Biographies of Giving and Volunteering (2002) excerpt
  • Hall, Peter Dobkin. "A historical overview of philanthropy, voluntary associations, and nonprofit organizations in the United States, 1600-2000." in Walter W. Powell and Richard Steinberg, eds. The nonprofit sector: A research handbook (2nd ed. 2006): vol 2 pp 32-65. online
  • Harvey, Charles, et al. "Andrew Carnegie and the foundations of contemporary entrepreneurial philanthropy." Business History 53.3 (2011): 425-450. online
  • Hitchcock, William I. (2014) "World War I and the humanitarian impulse." The Tocqueville Review/La revue Tocqueville 35.2 (2014): 145-163.
  • Kiger, Joseph C. (2011) Philanthropists and foundation globalization (Transaction Publishers).
  • McCarthy, Kathleen D. American creed: Philanthropy and the rise of civil society, 1700-1865 (U of Chicago Press, 2003).
  • Taylor, Marilyn L.; Robert J. Strom; David O. Renz (2014). Handbook of Research on Entrepreneurs: Engagement in Philanthropy: Perspectives. Edward Elgar. pp. 1–8.
  • Wyllie, Irvin G. "The Search for an American Law of Charity, 1776-1844." Mississippi Valley Historical Review 46.2 (1959): 203-221. online
  • Zunz, Olivier. Philanthropy in America: A history (Princeton UP, 2014).
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