List of avant-garde films of the 1930s
A list of avant-garde and experimental films made in the 1930s. Unless where noted, all films had sound and were in black and white.
Title | Director | Cast | Nation | Notes | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1930 | ||||||
L'Âge d'Or | Luis Buñuel | Gaston Modot, Lya Lys, Max Ernst | Surrealist feature, produced by Charles de Noailles[1] | |||
Autour de la fin du monde | Eugène Deslaw | Abel Gance | Extraordinary, semi-experimental "making of" documentary shot on set of Abel Gance's "La fin du monde;" silent [2] | |||
Apteka (Pharmacy) | Stefan Themerson, Franciszka Themerson | Rayographic animation, lost [3] | ||||
Bezucelná procházka (Aimless Walk) | Alexandr Hackenschmied (Alexander Hammid) | City film [4] | ||||
Borderline | Kenneth MacPherson | Paul Robeson, Hilda Doolittle | Pool film; silent [5] | |||
A City Symphony | Herman G. Weinberg | City film, never shown, disassembled and partly used in Autumn Fire [6] | ||||
Crying for the Carolines | Leon Schlesinger, Neil McGuire | Milton Charles | A "Spooney Melodie;" Semi-abstract music short [7][8] | |||
Earth | Oleksandr Dovzhenko | Silent feature; part of the director's Ukraine Trilogy.[9] | ||||
It's a Bird | Harold Mueller | Charles Bowers, Lowell Thomas | Semi-animated short where an egg transforms into an automobile [10] | |||
Ein Lichtspiel: Schwarz/Weiss/Grau | László Moholy-Nagy | |||||
Light Rhythms | Francis Brugière, Oswell Blakeston | Light-oriented, non-animated abstract film[11] | ||||
Mechanical Principles | Ralph Steiner | Abstract film based on machinery; sometimes dated to 1933 [12] | ||||
Mennschen am Sonntag (People on Sunday) | Curt Siodmak, Robert Siodmak, Edgar G. Ulmer, Fred Zinnemann, Rochus Gliese | Erwin Splettstößer, Brigitte Borchert | City film, partly written by Billy Wilder; silent[13] | |||
The Power of Suggestion | M.G. MacPherson, Jean Michelson | Artkino production, Lost film [6] | ||||
À Propos de Nice | Jean Vigo | City film | ||||
Romance Sentimentale | Grigory Alexandrov, Sergei Eisenstein | Mara Griy | "Étude cinematographique" [14] | |||
The Story of a Nobody | Jo Gerson, Louis Hirshman | Experiment in subjective camerawork, Lost film [15] | ||||
Studie(s) Nr. 2-4 | Oskar Fischinger | Abstract animations; Nr. 4 Lost [16] | ||||
R.5, Ein Spiel in Linien (Studie Nr. 5) | Oskar Fischinger | Abstract animation [16] | ||||
Studie Nr. 6 | Oskar Fischinger | Abstract animation [16] | ||||
Takový je zivot (Such is Life) | Karl Junghans | Vera Baranovskaya, Theodor Pistek | Slovak avant-garde social realist feature; silent [17][18] | |||
Tomatoes Another Day | James Sibley Watson, Jr. | Absurdist comedy written by Alec Wilder[19] | ||||
The Trap | M.G. MacPherson, Jean Michelson | Artkino production, Lost film [6] | ||||
Wochenende (Weekend) | Walter Ruttmann | Audio-only film collage; no image [20] | ||||
Yamekraw | Murray Roth | Hugo Marianni & His Mediterraneans | Vitaphone "opera film" visualization of tone poem by James Price Johnson, heavily indebted to German expressionism.[21][22][23] | |||
1931 | ||||||
Autumn Fire | Herman G. Weinberg | Erna Bergman, Willy Hildebrand | Cinematic poem; mixed nature and city film [6] | |||
A Bronx Morning | Jay Leyda | City film; silent [24] | ||||
City of Contrasts | Irving Browning | City film [25][6] | ||||
Dance Film | Ralph Steiner | Dance film [6] | ||||
A Day in Santa Fe | Lynn Riggs, James Hughes | City film[11][26] | ||||
Douro, Faina Flouval | Manoel de Oliveira | City film | ||||
Enthusiasm: Symphony of the Donbass | Dziga Vertov | Documentary film with montage of both visuals and sound | ||||
Hearts of the West | Theodore Huff | Genre parody [6] | ||||
Imperial Valley | Seymour Stern | Experimental documentary, sometimes dated to 1932 or 1933; Stern taken off production which was finished by others, Lost film [27][28] | ||||
Limite | Mário Peixoto | Olga Breno, Raul Schnoor | Advertised as 'pure cinema;' first Brazilian avant-garde film [29] | |||
Na Prazském hrade (The Prague Castle) | Alexandr Hackenschmied | Semi-documentary [4] | ||||
Panther Woman of the Needle Trades, or The Lovely Life of Little Lisa | Ralph Steiner | Elizabeth Hawes, Morris Carnovsky | Satire, print extant at MOMA [6] | |||
Portrait of a Young Man in Three Movements | Henwar Rodakiewicz | Feature length experimental film, begun in 1925 [30][31] | ||||
Studie(s) Nr. 7-9 | Oskar Fischinger | Abstract animation [16] | ||||
Surf and Seaweed | Ralph Steiner | Photographic abstract film, sometimes dated to 1930.[32] | ||||
Svetlo proniká tmou (Light Penetrates the Darkness) | Otakar Vávra, Frantisek Pilát | Photographic abstract film [33] | ||||
Taris, roi de l'eau | Jean Vigo | Documentary about a swimming champion | ||||
1932 | ||||||
Blood of a Poet | Jean Cocteau | Lee Miller, Pauline Carton, Odette Talazacuez | Surrealist feature, produced by Charles de Noailles; often misdated to 1930-31[34] | |||
Burleska | Jan Kučera | Experimental short; Kučera's only film[35] | ||||
Destiny | Josef Berne | Dated "ca. 1932"[6] | ||||
Europa | Stefan Themerson, Franciszka Themerson | Abstract animation, based on the poem by Anatol Stern; lost, but partially reconstructed in 1984[3] | ||||
The Fortune Teller | Jerome Hill | Tinting and hand-coloring added in the 1960s [36][37] | ||||
Granite, a.k.a. The Quarry | Ralph Steiner | [6] | ||||
Harbor Scenes | Ralph Steiner | [6] | ||||
Histoire du soldat inconnu | Henri Storck | |||||
L'idée | Berthold Bartosch | Surreal animation; music by Arthur Honegger[38] | ||||
Koloraturen (Coloratura) | Oskar Fischinger | Abstract animation [16] | ||||
Kuhle Wampe | Bertolt Brecht, Slatan Dudow | Agitprop film, written by Bertolt Brecht with music by Hanns Eisler.[39] | ||||
Land of the Sun | Seymour Stern | Experimental documentary [40][27] | ||||
Little Geezer | Theodore Huff | Genre parody [6][41] | ||||
Ornament Sound Experiment, a.k.a. Experiments in Hand-Drawn Sound | Oskar Fischinger | Synthetic sound experiment [16] | ||||
Poem 8 | Emlen Etting | Mary Binney Montgomery, Caresse Crosby | Dance film, shot in 8mm, silent [42] | |||
Pred maturitou (Before Matriculation) | Sviatopluk Immermann, Vladislav Vancura | Jindřich Plachta, Frantisek Smolík | Semi-experimental feature film [35][43] | |||
Qué vivá México! | Sergei Eisenstein, Grigori Alexandrov | Félix Balderas, Martín Hernández | Begun in 1931, never completed by Eisenstein; edited into numerous other films [44] | |||
Studie(s) Nr. 10-11 | Oskar Fischinger | Abstract animation [16] | ||||
Studie Nr. 12 | Oskar Fischinger, Hans Fischinger | Abstract animation [16] | ||||
Sur les bords de la caméra (Pictures on the Sideline) | Henri Storck | |||||
Visions of Lourdes | Charles Dekeukeleire | |||||
1933 | ||||||
7 till 5 | Norman McLaren | Amateur city film [45] | ||||
Dawn to Dawn | Josef Berne, Seymour Stern | Julie Haydon, Ole M. Ness, Frank Eklof | a.k.a. "Black Dawn," short, Naturalist melodrama[46][6][47] | |||
Deserter | Vsevolod Pudovkin | Boris Livanov, Vasili Kovrigin | Asynchronous use of sound and image [48] | |||
Drobiazg Melodyjny (Moment Musical) | Stefan Themerson, Franciszka Themerson | Rayographic animation, Lost [3] | ||||
Footnote to Fact | Lewis Jacobs | City film [49] | ||||
G-3 | Ralph Steiner | Also dated to 1932 [6][50] | ||||
Las Hurdes: Tierra Sin Pan | Luis Buñuel | Abel Jacquin, Alexandre O'Neill | Documentary, co-written by Buñuel and Surrealist poet Pierre Unik, with music by Darius Milhaud[51] | |||
In the Icy Wastes of Dialectical Materialism | Luis Buñuel, Charles de Noailles | Re-edited section of L'age d'or, rendered as comedy and shown in leftist theaters in Eastern Europe; lost.[52] | ||||
Kreise (Circles) | Oskar Fischinger | Abstract animation, exists in two versions, color [16] | ||||
Lot in Sodom | James Sibley Watson, Jr., Melville Webber | Friedrich Haak, Hildegarde Watson | Experimental short based on Biblical story [53] | |||
Mr. Motorboat's Last Stand | John Flory, Theodore Huff | Leonard Stirrup | Satire [6][47] | |||
Na slunecní strane (On the sunnyside) | Vladislav Vančura | Filip Balek-Brodský, Hana Beckova | Didactic feature film [35][54] | |||
Une nuit sur le mont chauve | Alexandre Alexieff, Claire Parker | First pinscreen animation, also dated to 1934, 1931 [55] | ||||
Oil—A Symphony in Motion | M.G. MacPherson, Jean Michelson | Only extant Artkino production[6][37] | ||||
Oramunde | Emlen Etting | Caresse Crosby, Mary Binney Montgomery | Dance film [37][56] | |||
Poslovi konzula Dorgena (Consul Dorgen's Business) | Oktavijan Miletić | Šime Marov, Ivan Alpi-Rauch | Experimental dramatic short; won a prize awarded by Louis Lumière [57][58] | |||
Prostoy sluchay (A Simple Case) | Vsevolod Pudovkin | Aleksandr Baturin, Mariya Belousova | Naturalist drama, begun in 1931; silent [59] | |||
Pueblo | Seymour Stern | Experimental documentary; never finished, Lost film [27] | ||||
Synchromy | Mary Ellen Bute, Lewis Jacobs, Joseph Schillinger | Abstract animation, never completed [60] | ||||
Tilly Losch in the Dance of Her Hands | Norman Bel Geddes | Tilly Losch | Dance film, dated 1930-33 [37] | |||
Zem spieva (The Earth Sings) | Karel Plicka, Alexandr Hackenschmied | Experimentally edited ethnographic semi-documentary, with music score [4] | ||||
Zéro de conduite | Jean Vigo | |||||
1934 | ||||||
Atom věčnosti (Atoms of Eternity) | Čeněk Zahradníček | |||||
Beyond This Open Road | B. Vivian Braun | |||||
Café Universal | Ralph Steiner | Satire featuring members of The Group Theatre [6] | ||||
Camera Makes Whoopee | Norman McLaren | Amateur film; montage experiments [61] | ||||
La Joie de vivre | Anthony Gross, Hector Hoppin | Stylized, surreal animated film [62] | ||||
The Furies | Slavko Vorkapich | Surreal special effects insert for feature, "Crime without Passion" [63] | ||||
Hands | Ralph Steiner, Willard Van Dyke | Sponsored by the Works Project Administration; also dated 1936-7 and edited into later films [64][15] | ||||
Happiness (1934 film) | Aleksandr Medvedkin | Petr Zinoviev, Elena Egorova | Soviet satire; stylized, silent [65] | |||
The Hearts of Age | William Vance, Orson Welles | Virginia Nicolson, Orson Welles | Amateur experimental film, made at the Todd School, Chicago [37] | |||
Liebesspiel | Oskar Fischinger | Abstract animation, first exhibited posthumously; silent [16] | ||||
Man of Aran | Robert J. Flaherty | Fictionalised documentary[66] | ||||
Marijka nevernice (Faithless Maritza) | Vladislav Vancura | Hana Maria Pravda | Semi-experimental feature [35][67] | |||
Muratti Greift Ein (Muratti Gets in the Act) | Oskar Fischinger | Dancing cigarette animation, color [16] | ||||
Prisoner | Roman Freulich | George Sari, Jack Rockwell | Expressionistic short, made in Hollywood, lost film [6] | |||
Quadrate (Squares) | Oskar Fischinger | Abstract animation, silent [16] | ||||
Rectangles | Oskar Fischinger | Abstract animation, silent, unfinished [16] | ||||
Rhythm in Light | Mary Ellen Bute, Ted Nemeth, Melville Webber | Abstract animation [68] | ||||
Ein Spiel in Farben (A Play in Colors) | Oskar Fischinger | Abstract animation, a.k.a. Studie No. 11a, color [16] | ||||
Studie Nr. 13 (Coriolan Fragment) | Oskar Fischinger | Abstract animation, unfinished [16] | ||||
Sweet Land of Liberty | Leo Hurwitz | Satirical documentary; Lost film [69] | ||||
Žijeme v Praze (We Live in Prague) | Otakar Vávra | City film [70] | ||||
1935 | ||||||
A Colour Box | Len Lye | |||||
Colour Cocktail | Norman McLaren | Abstract animation; lost film [71] | ||||
Ghost Town: The Story of Fort Lee | Theodore Huff, Mark Borgatte | Semi-documentary [25] | ||||
Gypsy Night | Josef Berne, Harold Hecht | Musical short, set in a Gypsy camp, color [72] | ||||
The Hands on Tuesday | Čeněk Zahradníček | |||||
Hollywood | Vic Kandel, Robert Del Duca | Satire, Lost film [69] | ||||
Kinetic Molpai | Ted Shawn | Ted Shawn and his Men Dancers | Modern dance film [73] | |||
Komposition in Blau (Composition in Blue) | Oskar Fischinger | Abstract animation in Gasparcolour [16] | ||||
Listopad (November) | Otakar Vávra, Alexandr Hackenschmied | [74][35] | ||||
Muratti Privat | Oskar Fischinger | Dancing cigarette animation [16] | ||||
Pie in the Sky | Ralph Steiner, Elia Kazan, Molly Day Thatcher, Irving Lerner | Elia Kazan, Russell Collins | Satire [75] | |||
Pink Guards On Parade | Oskar Fischinger | Abstract advertisement, unfinished; completed in 2000 by William Moritz [16] | ||||
Poison | Man Ray | Man Ray, Meret Oppenheim | Double "portrait" film of Ray and Oppenheim [76] | |||
Polychrome Phantasy | Norman McLaren | Abstract animation, color [77] | ||||
Synchromy No. 2 | Mary Ellen Bute, Ted Nemeth | Abstract animation [78] | ||||
Zwarcie (Short Circuit) | Stefan Themerson, Franciszka Themerson | Abstract animation, music by Witold Lutoslawski, Lost [3] | ||||
1936 | ||||||
145 W 21 | Rudy Burckhardt | Paul Bowles, Aaron Copland | [79] | |||
Allegretto | Oskar Fischinger | Abstract animation, black & white, 2 versions [16] | ||||
The Birth of the Robot | Len Lye | |||||
Cernobílá rapsodie (Black and White Rhapsody) | Martin Fric | City film [35] | ||||
Dada | Mary Ellen Bute, Ted Nemeth | Abstract animation [80] | ||||
Hell Unlimited | Helen Biggar, Norman McLaren | Anti-war political short [81] | ||||
The New Architecture and the London Zoo | László Moholy-Nagy | |||||
Redes | Emilio Gómez Muriel, Fred Zinnemann | Silvio Hernández, Rafael Hinojosa | Cinematography by Paul Strand, music by Silvestre Revueltas; Eisenstein-influenced revolutionary film [82] | |||
Rose Hobart | Joseph Cornell | Rose Hobart | Collage film [83] | |||
1937 | ||||||
Even—As You and I | LeRoy Robbins, Harry Hay | Hy Hirsh | ||||
Escape | Mary Ellen Bute, Ted Nemeth, Bill Nemeth | Abstract animation [84] | ||||
Monsieur Fantômas | Ernst Moerman | |||||
An Optical Poem | Oskar Fischinger | Abstract animation, distributed by MGM, color [16] | ||||
Parabola | Mary Ellen Bute, Ted Nemeth, Bill Nemeth, Rutherford Boyd | Abstract animation [85] | ||||
Przygoda Czlowieka Poczciwego (The Adventure of a Good Citizen) | Stefan Themerson, Franciszka Themerson | Satire [3] | ||||
Seeing the World No. 1: A Trip to New York CIty | Rudy Burckhardt | City film[11] | ||||
Silnice spívá (The Highway Sings) | Elmar Klos, Alexandr Hackenschmied | Experimental advertising film[4] | ||||
1938 | ||||||
Bookstalls | Joseph Cornell | Collage film, title added posthumously; Silent [11][86] | ||||
Carousel: Animal Opera | Joseph Cornell | Collage film [11] | ||||
The Children's Jury | Joseph Cornell | Collage film, Silent [11] | ||||
The Children's Trilogy: Cotillion, The Midnight Party, The Children's Party | Joseph Cornell | Collage film, put into a final form by Larry Jordan ca. 1967-70, Silent [11] | ||||
Family Film | José Val del Omar | |||||
Fragment from Caroland's Mansion | Frank Stauffacher | [87] | ||||
Jack's Dream | Joseph Cornell | Collage film, put into a final form by Larry Jordan ca. 1970 [11] | ||||
N or NW | Len Lye | |||||
Thimble Theater | Joseph Cornell | Collage film, title added posthumously; Silent [11] | ||||
Tree Trunk to Head | Lewis Jacobs | Chaim Gross | Semi-documentary, silent [88] | |||
1939 | ||||||
The City | Ralph Steiner, Willard Van Dyke | City film for New York World's Fair, written by Pare Lorentz[89] | ||||
Dance of the Colors | Hans Fischinger | Abstract animation, color [16] | ||||
Haiti | Rudy Burckhardt | [90] | ||||
Love on the Wing | Norman McLaren | Abstract animation, color [91] | ||||
Scherzo | Norman McLaren | Abstract animation, color [92] | ||||
Spare Time | Humphrey Jennings | Short documentary about British people at leisure, inspired by Mass Observation | ||||
Spook Sport | Mary Ellen Bute, Ted Nemeth, Norman McLaren | Abstract animation, color [93] | ||||
Stars and Stripes | Norman McLaren | Abstract animation, color [92] | ||||
Time in the Sun | Marie Seton | Composite film, made of footage shot by Sergei Eisenstein for Qué vivá México![94] | ||||
References
- Jan Christopher Horak, ed. Lovers of Cinema: The First American Avant-Garde, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison WI 1995
- Paul Rotha and Roger Manvell, "Movie Parade: A Pictorial Survey of the Cinema" London: The Studio, 1936
- Parker Tyler, "Underground Film: A Critical History" New York: Da Capo Press, 1995 (originally published in 1969)
- David Curtis, "Experimental Cinema" New York: Universe Books, 1970
- Bruce Posner, ed. Unseen Cinema: Early American Avant-Garde Film, Black Thistle Press/Anthology Film Archives, NYC 2001
- ↑ imdb entry
- ↑ DVD Savant review of "Le fin du monde"
- 1 2 3 4 5 Themerson Archive Filmography
- 1 2 3 4 Monoskop Hackenschmied bio
- ↑ imdb entry
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Jan Christopher Horak, ed. Lovers of Cinema: The First American Avant-Garde, University of Wisconsin Press, Madison WI 1995
- ↑ imdb entry
- ↑ Crying for the Carolines (1930)
- ↑ "Earth (1930 film)". Wikipedia. 2017-06-07.
- ↑ imdb entry
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Unseen Cinema Program
- ↑ imdb entry
- ↑ imdb entry
- ↑ imdb entry
- 1 2 Bruce Posner, ed. Unseen Cinema: Early American Avant-Garde Film, Black Thistle Press/Anthology Film Archives, NYC 2001
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 CVM Fichinger filmography
- ↑ BAM/PFA Film Program Archived 2013-07-07 at the Wayback Machine.
- ↑ imdb entry
- ↑ imdb entry
- ↑ Jesse Shapins, "Walter Ruttmann's Weekend" Archived 2011-08-15 at the Wayback Machine.
- ↑ Hans Koert -- "Yamekraw: Rhapsody in Black and White
- ↑ Jennifer Fleeger -- Sounding American: Hollywood, Opera and Jazz. Oxford University Press, Oxford/New York, 2014 ppg. 44-51
- ↑ Richard Koszarski -- Hollywood on the Hudson: Film and Television in New York from Griffith to Sarnoff. Rutgers University Press, Piscataway, NJ 2008, ppg. 155-159
- ↑ imdb entry
- 1 2 Unseen Cinema program
- ↑ imdb entry
- 1 2 3 Ira H. Gallen, Seymour Stern: American Film Critic, Guardian and Prophet SEYMOUR STERN: AMERICAN FILM CRITIC, GUARDIAN and PROPHET by D.W. GRIFFITH - DIRECTOR on Myspace
- ↑ imdb entry
- ↑ William Drew, "Mário Peixoto"
- ↑ imdb entry
- ↑ The Art of Memory
- ↑ imdb entry
- ↑ imdb entry The Light Penetrates the Dark (1931)
- ↑ imdb entry
- 1 2 3 4 5 6 Peter Hames: Czech and Slovak Cinema: Theme and Tradition, Edinburgh University Press, 2009
- ↑ imdb entry
- 1 2 3 4 5 Unseen Cinema program
- ↑ "The Idea (1932 film)". Wikipedia. 2017-07-05.
- ↑ "Kuhle Wampe". Wikipedia. 2017-05-05.
- ↑ Lewis Jacobs, Experimental Cinema in America Part One: 1921-1941, Hollywood Quarterly Vol.3 No. 2, Winter 1947-48
- ↑ imdb entry
- ↑ imdb entry
- ↑ imdb entry
- ↑ Herman G. Weinberg, Unanswered Question: Eisenstein's Qué vivá México! in Bruce Posner, ed. Unseen Cinema: Early American Avant-Garde Film, Black Thistle Press/Anthology Film Archives, NYC 2001
- ↑ 7 Till 5 (1933)
- ↑ imdb entry
- 1 2 imdb entry
- ↑ Soviet Films blog
- ↑ imdb entry
- ↑ First Light: Steiner
- ↑ "Land Without Bread". Wikipedia. 2017-06-23.
- ↑ Allmovie review of "L'Age d'or"
- ↑ imdb entry
- ↑ imdb entry
- ↑ imdb entry
- ↑ imdb entry
- ↑ Europa film treasures Archived 2013-01-04 at the Wayback Machine.
- ↑ imdb entry
- ↑ Soviet Films blog
- ↑ imdb entry
- ↑ imdb entry
- ↑ La Joie de Vivre - 1934 - Europa Film Treasures Archived 2012-10-21 at the Wayback Machine.
- ↑ Unseen Cinema on DVD
- ↑ NARA entry
- ↑ Russian Film Symposium essay
- ↑ "Man of Aran". Wikipedia. 2017-06-24.
- ↑ imdb entry
- ↑ imdb entry
- 1 2 Film and Photo League Filmography
- ↑ Monoskop Vávra bio
- ↑ imdb entry
- ↑ imdb entry
- ↑ 100 Dance Treasures: Ted Shawn
- ↑ Vávra Monoskop Bio
- ↑ imdb entry
- ↑ Ikono: "Man Ray Three Short Films and a documentary Archived 2014-01-31 at the Wayback Machine.
- ↑ imdb entry
- ↑ imdb entry
- ↑ Rudy Burckhardt Films DVD
- ↑ imdb entry
- ↑ imdb entry
- ↑ Criterion Collection, "Redes"
- ↑ Senses of Cinema essay
- ↑ imdb entry
- ↑ imdb entry
- ↑ John C. Film Notes Blog
- ↑ Unseen Cinema program #11
- ↑ imdb entry
- ↑ imdb entry
- ↑ Richard Bartone, "Notes on Four Films by Rudolph Burckhardt"
- ↑ imdb entry
- 1 2 imdb entry
- ↑ imdb entry
- ↑ "Movie Review - - THE SCREEN; 'Time in the Sun,' a Documentary of Mexico, Based on Eisenstein's Material, at the Fifth Avenue - NYTimes.com". www.nytimes.com. Retrieved 2017-08-20.
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