Jinchuan campaigns

The History of Jinchuan

The name Jinchuan (Chinese: 金川; Tibetan: ཆུ་ཆེན་) means "Golden Stream" in Chinese. The name refers to two rivers in Northwest Sichuan, the Major Jinchuan and the Minor Jinchuan, both of which are tributaries of Dadu River. The literary meaning of the name stems from ancient tales which described a giant gold mine between Major Jinchuan and Minor Jinchuan. The majority people who lived in Jinchuan were rGyalrong People, who were ruled under the name of Buddha by hereditary Tusi.

The History of Tusi

The rGyalrong People (Chinese: 嘉绒人; Tibetan: རྒྱལ་རོང་; Wylie: rgyal rong) is a branch of Tibetan descendants who live in the Northwest Sichuan, China.^[3] They speak rGyalrong languages and practice Tibetan Buddhism. The Ming dynasty set up the Tusi system in Sichuan and Tibet to stabilize cultural conflicts between Confucius central government and Buddhism tribes. Tusi was the prime leader of his designated tribe, of which there were eighteen in Sichuan.^[4] Tusi ruled the rGyalrong tribes for decades as a puppet ruler of the government.

By the end of the Ming dynasty, the Tusi system were unable to adapt to the rapid changes of society. Tusi promoted the slavery system in Jinchuan, and they had the rights of a chieftain in their tribes. There were minor armed conflicts between the eighteen Tusi. Some of those conflicts evolved into armed rebellions. Officials of Qing realized that Tusi is a problem after they took over China from Ming. The viceroy of Yun-Gui Ortai suggested Yongzheng emperor to start the Bureaucratization of Tusi in Sichuan to replace the Tusi system, then retake the land and people for the empire.^[5] In 1726, the emperor had Ortai to supervise the bureaucratization. The reform was successful in Guizhou and Yunnan. But it saw resistance in Sichuan when Tusi started a major rebellion.

First Campaign Against Jinchuan

Attack on mountain Raipang. Most battles in Jinchuan took place in the mountains.

Slob Dpon was the Tusi of Major Jinchuan. He was trying to united tribes in Sichuan to fight the bureaucratization of Tusi. He kidnapped the Tusi of Minor Jinchuan Zewang in 1746 to force an alliance between Major Jinchuan and minor Jinchuan. People in Minor Jichuan was not satisfied with Slob Dpon. They sent a messenger to Chengdu to notify the Sichuan governor Ji Shan. Slob Dpon heard about this, one might as well be hanged for a sheep as a lamb. In 1747, Slob Dpon ordered an assault against Mingzheng Tusi's tribe.^[1] Ji Shan sent a few garrisons to attack Slob Dpon. The garrisons was defeated quickly and unexpectedly. Ji Shan realized the emergence of this sudden event and Slob Dpon's ambitious. He reported the rebellion and asked for help from the imperial court.

The Grand Council was angered by Slob Dpon's action. Qianlong mobilized 30,000 troops to suppress Slob Dpon's tribe. He appoint Zhang Guangsi as the overall commander to capture Major Jinchuan.^[5] The corrupt Qing army was failed to defeated Slob Dpon's untrained tribe warriors under highland climate. One year later, Qianlong ordered one of his Grand Secretariats Naqin to reinforce Zhang's army with more than 40,000 soldiers. Slob Dpon fortified the mountains and waterways, and the rGyalrongs were more familiar with the landscape. Naqin didn't well-cooperate with Zhang due to the court politics, beside, Naqin never had experience with commanding armed forces before. Slob Dpon placed a spy near in Qing's high command. Zhang did not find out about it. Major Jinchuan was prepared for all its opponents military actions. Qing army was defeated again in April 1748. Qianlong executed Zhang in December under the charge of disadvantageous commanding Heaven's army. Naqin committed suicide for shaming the emperor's name.^[5]

Fuheng became the commander in 1749. He was an experienced general. He slowed the attack and killed all the spies in the army. Fuheng separated the army to attack Slop Dpon from different directions. Qing army finally breaked the walls of Slob Dpon's stronghold in 1749.^[1] Slob Dpon surrendered, and he agreed to tribute thousands silver taels and many golden Buddha statues to save his life. Qianlong emperor trusted him and kept him as the Tusi, and paused the bureaucratization in Sichuan province.

The First Campaign Against Jinchuan was considered one of Qianlong's Great Achievements. Ironically, it was extremely unsuccessful for following reseaons:

1. Qing government mobilized more than 80,000 men in total from seven provinces to fight against a tribe that was not equipped with canons nor firearms.^[1]
2. Qianlong did not execute Slob Dpon, which made other Tusi more fearful of Major Jinchuan's force.
3. The central government did not take any step to limit Tusi's army size. Which gave them opportunities to rebel again.

Second Campaign Against Jinchuan

Agui's portrait

Slob Dpon died in 1760. His nephew Lang Kashi inherited the throne as the new Tusi of Major Jinchuan. Lang Kashi wanted to fulfill his uncle's legacy and wishes as becoming the new Tibetan King. He united some Tusi; recruited warriors; built defenses and implemented anti-Qing education in Jinchuan. After Lang Kashi past away in a few years, his son Sonom took the Tusi's name. Senggesang was a friend of Sonom, they dropped the family hatred and formed military alliance.^[5]

Sonom launched a sudden strike against Gebushiza Tusi in 1771. Senggesang attacked other Tusi. Qianlong announced the second campaign against Jinchuan. This time Qianlong determined to end Tusi system in Sichuan. The governor of Sichuan Artai leaded 20,000 troops to attack Senggesang.^[1] The conquest had no progress in 6 months. Qianlong dismissed him has the governor. Later on, Wenfu the Grand Secretariat was appointed as the overall commander. Guilin became the governor of Sichuan and the vice overall commander. Wenfu leaded the west front to attack Minor Jinchuan, and Guilin struck from the south. Wenfu was unstoppable, but Guilin's general Xue Zong was surrounded by enemy at Heilong Valley in Kangding. 30,000 troops was killed. Guilin did not reinforce Xue Zong's army and then was executed by Qianlong.^[5] The emperor needed a general to secure the victory. So he appointed the "Iron General" who just returned from conquering Burma, Agui, as the overall commander.

The Conquest of Geer Cliff

Agui was a smart and brave general. In November, 1772. Agui recognized that Senggesang's command post was located in Meidu Lama Temple, which in north of the Minor Jinchuan Stream. He took 4,000 soldiers with him, they crossed the stream under the cover of moonlight. They captured the temple but Senggesang escaped to Major Jinchuan.^[6] Agui sent a message to Sonom that if he hand over Senggesang, the Qing army will retreat and admit his role as the Tibet King. Sonom refused his request.

Wenfu and Agui jointed force in Minor Jinchuan in 1773. They stationed the army near Meidu, and was waiting for Spring to launch to second wave of offense. Unexpectedly, Major Jinchuan gathered elite force struck during the snow storm. They occupied the military granary of Qing army. Wenfu's force fought without supplies, and Wenfu was killed during the battle. Agui retreated, rGyalrongs retook the Minor Jinchuan.^[1]

Qianlong was surprised by how long this campaign had go on. He ordered an immediately reinforcement with stockpiles of firearms and imported heavy canons for Agui's army. Qianlong wanted to end the war at any cost. Agui executed the high order. Qing army started to massacre rGyalrong people to cut the army resource of Jinchuan. Agui conquered many fortresses, then reached Geer Cliff, Sonom's stronghold in 1775. Agui started the siege and cut the water supply of Geer Cliff. Sonom accepted Agui's terms of surrendering. He poisoned Senggesang and sent to corpse to Agui. Agui refused because Qianlong did not want to see a Third Campaign Against Jinchuan. In 1775, Agui command an assault. Qing occupied the outskirt of Geer cliff. Sonom retreated into the fort. In 1776, Qing army launched its final attack on Geer Cliff with canons.^[6] Sonom gave up the hopeless resistance. The Second Campaign Against Jinchuan had ended.

Results

Qing's decisive victory against Jinchuan rebel Tusi was documented by historical records. Qianlong was very happy about the fact that Jinchuan was defeated by his army of heaven. Later on, the Bureaucratization of Tusi was proceed in this region. Tribal administration was abolished. Tusi were exiled or executed. The central government established states and countys in Sichuan. Stabilized the minorities and increased cultural exchange between Zhongyuan (Chinese: 中原) and border areas.^[5] Which defined the foundation of Han domination in Southwest China. The end of Two Campaigns Against Jinchuan paved the way of success for the Bureaucratization of Tusi. Which solidify the southern border of today's China. Ended the slavery societies in Sichuan, Guizhou and Yunnan. The campaigns against Jinchuan symbolized the absolute power of Qing central government; reconfirmed the centralization of the empire's territory and administration. Which is essential for the modernization and urbanization of today's Sichuan.

Aba County today

Significance

Among Qianlong's Ten Great Campaigns. The war against Dzungar costed 23 million silver taels, and expanded the territory of Qing by over 1,500,000 km². The Campaign in Burma made Burma a tributary state and only 70,000 troops fought in war. But Qing gained nothing from the Two Campaigns against Jinchuan. 180% of the nation's annual revenue was spent and 600,000 troops fought in a region of 40,000 km² for over 9 years.^[2] This unnecessary war was way too costly. The second campaign could be avoided by abolish the Tusi system in 1749. Considering the total cost of 130 million silver taels of Qianlong's Ten Great Campaigns,^[2] the tremendous expenditure accelerated the economic crisis of Qing dynasty. Which indirectly lead to the fall of empire. However, the campaigns unified the china proper; improved the life quality of the Tibetan minorities; ensured the majesty of the imperial court and its policies.

The Two Campaigns against Jinchuan also revealed Qing's terrible economic system and the undeveloped Qing army. Compared to the British government at war during the same historical period, Qing's defense spending to national net income ratio is 90% higher than the British armed forces.^[7] Which is surprising considering the fact that Britain had a much larger navy to run. During the American Revolutionary War, advanced rifles and canons were introduced. New line infantry theories were used on the battlefields. Tirailleurs and voltigeurs were able to cooperate with the line battalions to launch offenses in Europe. But Qing's army were still practicing the ancient phalanx tactics. Which led to the inevitable failure during the conflicts between Qing and Western powers in the 19th Century.