Hydrogen fuel

Hydrogen fuel is a zero-emission fuel when burned with oxygen. It can be used in electrochemical cells or internal combustion engines to power vehicles or electric devices. It has been started to be used in commercial fuel cell vehicles such as passenger cars, and has been used in fuel cell buses for many years. It is also used as a fuel for the propulsion of spacecraft.

Hydrogen is found in the first group and first period in the periodic table, i.e. it is the first element on the periodic table, making it the lightest element. Since hydrogen gas is so light, it rises in the atmosphere and is therefore rarely found in its pure form, H2.[1] In a flame of pure hydrogen gas, burning in air, the hydrogen (H2) reacts with oxygen (O2) to form water (H2O) and releases energy.

2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g) + energy

If carried out in atmospheric air instead of pure oxygen, as is usually the case, hydrogen combustion may yield small amounts of nitrogen oxides, along with the water vapor.

The energy released enables hydrogen to act as a fuel. In an electrochemical cell, that energy can be used with relatively high efficiency. If it is used simply for heat, the usual thermodynamics limits on the thermal efficiency apply.

Hydrogen is usually considered an energy carrier, like electricity, as it must be produced from a primary energy source such as solar energy, biomass, electricity (e.g. in the form of solar PV or via wind turbines), or hydrocarbons such as natural gas or coal.[2] Conventional hydrogen production using natural gas induces significant environmental impacts; as with the use of any hydrocarbon, carbon dioxide is emitted.[3]

Production

Because pure hydrogen does not occur naturally on Earth in large quantities, it usually requires a primary energy input to produce on an industrial scale.[4] Common production methods include electrolysis and steam-methane reforming.[5] In electrolysis, electricity is run through water to separate the hydrogen and oxygen atoms. This method can use wind, solar, geothermal, hydro, fossil fuels, biomass, nuclear, and many other energy sources.[2] Obtaining hydrogen from this process is being studied as a viable way to produce it domestically at a low cost. Steam-methane reforming, the current leading technology for producing hydrogen in large quantities,[6] extracts hydrogen from methane. However, this reaction releases fossil carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide into the atmosphere which are greenhouse gases exogenous to the natural carbon cycle, and thus contribute to global warming which is rapidly heating the Earth's oceans and atmosphere.[1]

Energy

Hydrogen is locked up in enormous quantities in water, hydrocarbons, and other organic matter. One of the challenges of using hydrogen as a fuel comes from being able to efficiently extract hydrogen from these compounds. Currently, steam reforming, which combines high-temperature steam with natural gas, accounts for the majority of the hydrogen produced.[7] This method of hydrogen production occurs at temperatures between 700-1100°C, and has a resultant efficiency of between 60-75%.[8] Hydrogen can also be produced from water through electrolysis, which is less carbon intensive if the electricity used to drive the reaction does not come from fossil-fuel power plants but rather renewable energy instead. The efficiency of water electrolysis is between about 70-80%,[9][10] with a goal set to reach 82-86% efficiency by 2030 using proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzers.[11] Once produced, hydrogen can be used in much the same way as natural gas - it can be delivered to fuel cells to generate electricity and heat, used in a combined cycle gas turbine to produce larger quantities of centrally produced electricity or burned to run a combustion engine; all methods producing no carbon or methane emissions.[12] In each case hydrogen is combined with oxygen to form water. The heat in a hydrogen flame is a radiant emission from the newly formed water molecules. The water molecules are in an excited state on initial formation and then transition to a ground state; the transition releasing thermal radiation. When burning in air, the temperature is roughly 2000 °C (the same as natural gas). Historically, carbon has been the most practical carrier of energy, as hydrogen and carbon combined are more volumetrically dense, although hydrogen itself has three times the energy density per weight than methane or gasoline. Although hydrogen is the smallest element and thus has a slightly higher propensity to leak from venerable natural gas pipes such as those made from iron, leakage from plastic (polythylene PE100) pipes is expected to be very low at about 0.001%.[13][14]

The reason steam methane reforming has traditionally been favoured over electrolysis is because where methane reforming directly uses natural gas, electrolysis requires electricity. As the cost of producing electricity (via wind turbines and solar PV) falls below the cost of natural gas, electrolysis becomes cheaper than SMR.[15]

Uses

Hydrogen fuel can provide motive power for liquid-propellant rockets, cars, boats and airplanes, portable fuel cell applications or stationary fuel cell applications, which can power an electric motor.[16] The problems of using hydrogen fuel in cars arise from the fact that hydrogen is difficult to store in either a high pressure tank or a cryogenic tank.[17]

Internal combustion engine conversions to hydrogen

Combustion engines in commercial vehicles have been converted to run on a hydrogen-diesel mix in the UK, where up to 70% of emissions have been reduced during normal driving conditions. This eliminates range anxiety as the vehicles can fill up on diesel. Minor modifications are needed to the engines, as well as the addition of hydrogen tanks at a compression of 350 bars.[18] Trials are now underway to test the efficiency of the 100% conversion of a Volvo FH16 heavy-duty truck to use only hydrogen. The range is expected to be 300km/17kg[19]; which means an efficiency better than a standard diesel engine[20] (where the embodied energy of 1 gallon of gasoline is equal to 1 kilogram of hydrogen). At a low cost price for hydrogen (€5/kg),[21] significant fuel savings could be made via such a conversion in Europe or the UK. A lower price would be needed to compete with gasoline in the US, as gasoline is not exposed to high taxes at the pump.

Fuel cell engines are two to three times more efficient than combustion engines, meaning that much greater fuel economy is available using hydrogen in a fuel cell.

See also

References

Notes

  1. 1 2 Altork, L.N. & Busby, J. R. (2010 Oct). Hydrogen fuel cells: part of the solution. Technology & Engineering Teacher, 70(2), 22-27.
  2. 1 2 Florida Solar Energy Center. (n.d.). Hydrogen Basics. Retrieved from: http://www.fsec.ucf.edu/en/consumer/hydrogen/basics/index.htm
  3. ↑ Zehner, Ozzie (2012). Green Illusions. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press. pp. 1–169, 331–42.
  4. ↑ Wang, Feng (March 2015). "Thermodynamic analysis of high-temperature helium heated fuel reforming for hydrogen production". International Journal of Energy Research. 39 (3): 418–432. doi:10.1002/er.3263.
  5. ↑ Jones, J.C. (March 2015). "Energy-return-on-energy-invested for hydrogen fuel from the steam reforming of natural gas". Fuel. 143: 631. doi:10.1016/j.fuel.2014.12.027.
  6. ↑ U.S. Department of Energy. (2007 Feb). Potential for hydrogen production from key renewable resources in the United States. (Technical Report NREL/TP-640-41134). National Renewable Energy Laboratory Golden, CO: Milbrandt, A. & Mann, M. Retrieved from: http://www.afdc.energy.gov/afdc/pdfs/41134.pdf
  7. ↑ "Alternative Fuels Data Center: Hydrogen Basics". www.afdc.energy.gov. Retrieved 2016-02-27.
  8. ↑ "Hydrogen Production Technologies: Current State and Future Developments". hindawi.com. Retrieved 17 April 2018.
  9. ↑ Stolten, Detlef (Jan 4, 2016). Hydrogen Science and Engineering: Materials, Processes, Systems and Technology. John Wiley & Sons. p. 898. ISBN 9783527674299. Retrieved 22 April 2018.
  10. ↑ "ITM - Hydrogen Refuelling Infrastructure - February 2017" (PDF). level-network.com. p. 12. Retrieved 17 April 2018.
  11. ↑ "Cost reduction and performance increase of PEM electrolysers" (PDF). fch.europa.eu. Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking. p. 9. Retrieved 17 April 2018.
  12. ↑ Ono, Katsutoshi (January 2015). "Fundamental Theories on a Combined Energy Cycle of an Electrostatic Induction Electrolytic Cell and Fuel Cell to Produce Fully Sustainable Hydrogen Energy". Electrical Engineering in Japan. 190 (2): 1–9. doi:10.1002/eej.22673.
  13. ↑ "Energy Thoughts and Surprises". Retrieved 22 April 2018.
  14. ↑ Sadler, Dan. ""100% hydrogen unlocks everything"". medium.com. cH2ange. Retrieved 22 April 2018.
  15. ↑ Philibert, Cédric. "Commentary: Producing industrial hydrogen from renewable energy". www.iea.org/. International Energy Agency. Retrieved 22 April 2018.
  16. ↑ Colella, W.G. (October 2005). "Switching to a U.S. hydrogen fuel cell vehicle fleet: The resultant change in emissions, energy use, and greenhouse gases". Journal of Power Sources. 150 (1/2): 150–181. Bibcode:2005JPS...150..150C. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2005.05.092.
  17. ↑ Zubrin, Robert (2007). Energy Victory: Winning the War on Terror by Breaking Free of Oil. Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books. p. 121. ISBN 978-1-59102-591-7.
  18. ↑ Dalagan, Maria Theresa. "ULEMCO developing hydrogen-fuelled vehicles". freightwaves.com. Retrieved 22 April 2018.
  19. ↑ "UK firm to demonstrate "world's first" hydrogen-fuelled combustion engine truck". theengineer.co.uk. Centaur Media plc. Retrieved 22 April 2018.
  20. ↑ Mårtensson, Lars. "Emissions from Volvo's trucks" (PDF). volvotrucks.com. p. 3. Retrieved 22 April 2018.
  21. ↑ André Løkke, Jon. "Wide Spread Adaption of Competitive Hydrogen Solution" (PDF). nelhydrogen.com/. Nel ASA. p. 16. Retrieved 22 April 2018.

Bibliography

  • McCarthy, John. "Hydrogen".
  • Energy Information Administration. "Hydrogen explained to a juvenile audience". EIA Official Energy Statistics from the U.S. Government.
  • Milbrandt, A. "Hydrogen Production from Key Renewable Resources in the United States" (pdf). U.S. Department of Energy, National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Retrieved September 13, 2013.
  • Hydrogen as the fuel of the future, report by the DLR


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