History of military nutrition

Military nutrition has evolved over time. In the past, armies lived off the land, by pillaging food from the people whose land the army occupied, or requisitioning it. Often more soldiers died of disease that was exacerbated by malnutrition than from combat.

"An army marches on its stomach", said Napoleon Bonaparte, in the oft-quoted phrase.^[1]

The standard for military rations in the United States was set in 1775 during the Revolutionary War and included one pound of beef, one quarter pound of pork, or one pound of salt fish; one pound of bread or flour; three pints of peas or beans; one pint of milk; one half-pint of rice or one pint of cornmeal; and one quart of spruce beer or cider. When these items were not available, soldiers relied on jerky and hardtack, a type of biscuit made from flour and water.^[2] During the Civil War, due to the progress made in the preservation of food, Union rations came to include coffee, tea, potatoes, and seasonings. During World War I, rations included a pound of hard bread and canned meat, a cube of condensed soup, coffee, and sugar.

During World War I, four types of rations existed: garrison rations, reserve rations, emergency rations, and trench rations. Garrison rations were perishable foods like meat and bread. Reserve rations were non-perishables, such as canned goods. In response to the need for food for the Grand Army that invaded Russia under Napoleon, a French government reward prompted Nicolas Appert to invent "canning", resulting in the first preserved food for armies (military rations), that came as food stuffed into wine bottles and then boiled to preserve it.^[1] Emergency rations were compressed meats and cereal bars. Trench rations were kept in large steel cans designed to withstand chemical attacks. During the mid-1930s, the names for these rations were changed: garrison rations became A rations; reserve rations became B and C rations; emergency rations became D rations. C rations contained three cans of meat (M) units and Bread (B) units. M1 contained meat and beans, M2 contained meat and vegetable hash, and M3 contained meat and vegetable stew. B units contained bread, coffee, and sugar.

K rations were developed in the 1940s. These were portable rations, sealed for safe consumption, designed to give soldiers the energy they need without the baggage of the bulkier rations. One version of the K ration, the Logan bar, was made from chocolate and oat flour and was made by Hershey Chocolate Company. Starting in the 1980s these rations evolved to include two hot meals a day. T, or tray rations were developed for dining halls and were meant to be boiled and served to twelve to eighteen people. Individual rations were also developed called MRE or Meals Ready-To-Eat. These were complete 1300 calorie meals that include things like cake, peanut butter, hot sauce, and candy. These MREs came with a water activated heating pad to prepare the meals if desired. Since the 1980s, the variety of these meals has increased to include more of a variation of meals.^[2]

United States Military

Currently, the United States military several different types of food available. Some of these include:

• A-Ration, a fresh refrigerator food that is normally prepared in dining halls or field kitchens. Examples of A- Ration include various kinds of meat and produce found locally.^[3]
• B-Ration, less perishable foods such as canned, prepackaged, or preserved foods.^[4]
• MRE, or Meals Ready to Eat, which were first studied by the military in 1975, large-scale tested in 1978, and entered service in 1981. The 25th Infantry did a field study of the MRE in 1983, eating MRE three times a day for 34 days; troops reported that the rations were acceptable, but test results showed only 60% of the calories were consumed. In 1988 changes, were made to the MRE based on the 1983 results, replacing nine of the twelve entree options and increasing entree size from 5 to 8 oz.^[5]
• First Strike Ration, a fast action meal which troops can eat while on the move; it is designed to be consumed during the first 72 hours of conflict. One example is the HOOAH! Bar, a dairy based energy bar enriched with calcium.^[4]

Effects on Health

Nutrition has a direct correlation to health, and health directly influences the effectiveness of military personnel. Lack of proper nutrition can decrease the effectiveness of vaccines and increase the possibility of disease, especially in high stress situations. Many nutrients have direct effects on the immune system. When the body is subjected to illnesses such as injuries or burns increased amounts of the amino acid Glutamine are required. Vitamins C and E are antioxidants and have been associated with increased immune response.^[6] Nutrition plays an important role in the body’s ability to repair itself. Throughout history there have been instances where disease caused by nutritional depletion caused more deaths than combat. During Lord Anson’s 1774 voyage around the world 636 of his 961 soldiers died while on his ships. The surgeon James Lind of the Royal Navy discovered that consuming citrus fruits prevented scurvy.^[7] Historical accounts and nutrient analysis provide evidence that poor nutrition and inadequate amounts of vitamins A, C, and E may have caused the failure of the New Zealand army during the Battle of Gallipoli. These deficiencies account for numerous cases of scurvy and illnesses and could have been easily avoided by incorporating canned fruits and vegetables into soldier’s diets.^[8] “ Inadequate nutrition can result in poor physical and cognitive performance (e.g. inability to carry out physical tasks, poor concentration and decreased vigilance) [21,22]. The long-term effects of both macro- and micro-nutrient imbalances include increased risk of vitamin and mineral deficiencies (potentially predisposing some individuals to an increased risk of stress fractures and rickets), obesity, hypertension, coronary heart disease, diabetes, osteoporosis and kidney failure”.^[7]

Nutritional Evaluation of Meals Ready to Eat (MRE)

In 1963, the Department of Defense began creating what is now known as “Meal, Ready to Eat”, commonly abbreviated as MRE. Modern food preparation combined with new packaging technology led to the ability to ration out food in a lighter and more efficient way, rather than having to carry around canned goods. Ongoing development has led to around 24 entrees and more than 150 additional food and beverage options for soldiers to choose from. Recently, MREs have been studied more extensively, and are now being developed using the Dietary Reference Intake. Created by the Institute of Medicine, it was indicated that military members typically burn around 4,200 calories a day, but tend to only consume around 2,400 calories during combat.^[9] To combat this and provide foods with better nutritional value, the military has experimented with new ration ideas, such as the First Strike Ration and the HOOAH! Bar, which are typically lighter than MRE and require less preparation, such as having to heat up foods.

Each MRE meal contains approximately 1,200 calories. They are prepared to be eaten within a twenty-one day period. Packaging requirements are strict in order to maintain health codes. For example, MREs are created to withstand parachute drops from 1,250 feet high. The packaging itself is made to survive a life shelf of three and a half years at 81 degrees Fahrenheit, nine months at 100 degrees Fahrenheit, and can even stay safe through short durations of -60 degrees Fahrenheit.

Not only are the MRE options ever-developing to best suit the needs of service members, the packaging itself is improving. Zein is being studied as a possibility to replace the current foil packages. Foil has a list of negativity; it can be punctured more easily, can conduct heat, and is reflective, which could give away a soldier’s position while on the battlefield.

Psychological Effects

The subject of how nutrition in the military affects service members psychologically is an ongoing research process. It is currently a small field, as few studies have been conducted. However, much research has been done on how food, or lack thereof, can affect the mental stability of an individual. This information can thus be carried over to our soldiers and intensified, to better their health. A review by the American Dietetic Association indicated that restricting the intake of food has many underlying issues. Lack of proper nutrition can increase emotional responsiveness and dysphoria, and distractibility.^[10] This can be an obvious issue for soldiers, especially those on the front line. Taking this into account and finding ways to better the dietary plans of military members will not only better their physical abilities, but help keep their minds stronger.

Religious Diets

Muslim soldiers must observe Ramadan, a four-week fasting period where the participants can only eat after sundown. This can cause problems for military personnel who are in training or in battle, depleting their body of nutrients for long periods of time while they are still required to do continuous physical and mental labor at a high level of ability.^[11] However, a Hellenic Army Academy study found that Ramadan fasting does not affect overall military fitness performance, although fasting cadets were less able to handle repeated maximal exercise, possibly due to inadequate recovery between tests.^[11]

Diet Quality

See also

• British Military Rations during the French and Indian War
• Combat ration
• Garrison ration
• List of military food topics
• Military rations

References