German minority in Poland

The registered German minority in Poland at the 2011 national census consisted of 148,000 people, of whom 64,000 declared both German and Polish ethnicities and 45,000 solely German ethnicity.^[1] At a 2002 census there were 152,900 people declaring German ethnicity.^[2][3][4] In 2013, Poland's German community was estimated to be around 350,000.^[5] Due to complications arising from multi-ethnic identities and previous concealment during the communist period, many people of German descent are not accounted for and some estimates number Poles of German ancestry from 400,000 to 500,000.^[6]

The German language is used in certain areas in Opole Voivodeship, where most of the minority resides, and in Silesian Voivodeship. However, there are no localities in either the former Upper Silesia or Poland as a whole where German could be considered a language of everyday communication.^[7] The predominant home or family language of Poland's German minority in Upper Silesia used to be the Silesian German language (mainly Oberschlesisch dialect, but also Mundart des Brieg-Grottkauer Landes was used west of Opole), but since 1945 Standard German replaced it as these Silesian German dialects went generally out of use except among the oldest generations which by now completely died off.^[8] The German Minority electoral list currently has one seat in the Sejm of the Republic of Poland (there were four from 1993 to 1997), benefiting from the current provision in Polish election law which exempts national minorities from the 5% national threshold.

In the school year of 2014/15 there were 387 elementary schools in Poland (all in Upper Silesia), with over 37,000 students, in which German was taught as a minority language (that is, at least for three periods of 45 minutes in a week), hence de facto as a subject.^[9] There were no minority schools with German as the language of instruction, though there were three asymmetrically bilingual (Polish-German) schools, where most subjects were taught through the medium of Polish.^[10] Most members of the German minority are Roman Catholic, while some are Lutheran Protestants (the Evangelical-Augsburg Church).

Germans in Poland today

German minority in Upper Silesia: Opole Voivodeship (west) and Silesian Voivodeship (east).

German minority in Warmia and Masuria.

According to the 2002 census, most of the Germans in Poland (92.9%) live in Silesia: 104,399 in the Opole Voivodeship, i.e. 71.0% of all Germans in Poland and a share of 9.9% of the local population; 30,531 in the Silesian Voivodeship, i.e. 20.8% of all Germans in Poland and 0.6% of the local population; plus 1,792 in the Lower Silesian Voivodeship, i.e. 1.2% of all Germans in Poland, though only 0.06% of the local population. A second region with a notable German minority is Masuria, with 4,311 living in the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship, corresponding to 2.9% of all Germans in Poland, and 0.3% of the local population.

Towns with particularly high concentrations of German speakers in Opole Voivodeship include: Strzelce Opolskie; Dobrodzien; Prudnik; Głogówek; and Gogolin.^[11]

In the remaining 12 voivodeships of Poland, the percentage of Germans in the population does not exceed 0.09%:

Poland is also the third most frequent destination for migrant Germans searching for work, after the United States and Switzerland.^[13]

History of Germans in Poland

German language frequency in Poland – based on the Polish census of 1931

Votes for the German Minority in the 2007 elections in the Opole Vovoidship

Inspection of a Selbstschutz unit in Bydgoszcz, 1939. Josef Meier ("Bloody Meier") – leader of the Selbstschutz in Bydgoszcz, Werner Kampe - mayor of Bydgoszcz, and Ludolf von Alvensleben - leader of the Selbstschutz in Pomerania

Example of bilingual labeling in German and Polish on the town hall of the Polish village Cisek

German migration into areas that form part of present-day Poland began with the medieval Ostsiedlung (see also Walddeutsche in the Subcarpathian region). Regions which subsequently became part of the Kingdom of Prussia - Lower Silesia, East Brandenburg, Pomerania and East Prussia - were almost completely German by the High Middle Ages. In other areas of modern-day Poland there were substantial German populations, most notably in the historical regions of Pomerelia, Upper Silesia, and Posen or Greater Poland. Lutheran Germans settled numerous "Olęder" villages along the Vistula River and its tributaries during the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. In the 19th century, Germans became actively involved in developing the clothmaking industry in what is now central Poland. Over 3,000 villages and towns within Russian Poland are recorded as having German residents. Many of these Germans remained east of the Curzon line after World War I ended in 1918, including a significant number in Volhynia. In the late-19th century, some Germans moved westward during the Ostflucht, while a Prussian Settlement Commission established others in Central Poland.

According to the 1931 census, around 740,000 German speakers lived in Poland (2.3% of the population). Their minority rights were protected by the Little Treaty of Versailles of 1919. The right to appeal to the League of Nations however was renounced in 1934, officially due to Germany's withdrawal from the League (September 1933) after Adolf Hitler became German Chancellor in January 1933.

Communes in Poland in which additional minority names were introduced (as of 1 December 2009). In blue – German names in the Opole and Silesian Voivodeships (total of 238 German names in Silesia)

After Nazi Germany's invasion of the Second Polish Republic in September 1939, many members of the German minority (around 25%^[14]) joined the ethnic German paramilitary organisation Volksdeutscher Selbstschutz. When the German occupation of Poland began, the Selbstschutz took an active part in Nazi crimes against ethnic Poles. Due to their pre-war interactions with the Polish majority, they were able to prepare lists of Polish intellectuals and civil servants whom the Nazis selected for extermination. The organisation actively participated and was responsible for the deaths of about 50,000 Poles.^[15]

During the German occupation of Poland during World War II (1939-1945), the Nazis forcibly resettled ethnic Germans from other areas of Central Europe (such as the Baltic states) in the pre-war territory of Poland. At the same time the Nazi authorities expelled, enslaved and killed Poles and Jews.

Following the outbreak of World War II in September 1939, the Soviets annexed a massive portion of the eastern part of Poland (November 1939) in the wake of an August 1939 agreement between the Reich and the USSR. After the Nazis' defeat in 1945, Poland did not regain its Soviet-annexed territory;^[16] instead, the Soviets expelled^[17] the remaining Germans (those who had not been evacuated or fled before^[18]) from the areas of Lower Silesia, Upper Silesia, Pommerania, East Brandenburg, and East Prussia and replaced them with Poles, most of whom were expelled from Soviet-occupied areas that had previously formed part of Poland. About half of East Prussia became the newly-created Soviet territory of Kaliningrad Oblast (officially established in 1946), where Soviet citizens replaced the former German residents. The Potsdam Agreement of August 1945 specified or endorsed the shifting of borders.^[19][20]

Following the downfall of the Polish Communist regime in 1989, the German minorities' political situation in modern-day Poland has improved, and German citizens are now allowed to buy land and property in the areas where they or their ancestors used to live, and can return there if they wish. However, none of their properties have been returned after being confiscated.

A possible demonstration of the ambiguity of the Polish-German minority position can be seen in the life and career of Waldemar Kraft, a Minister without Portfolio in the West German Bundestag during the 1950s. However, most of the German minority had not been as involved in the Nazi system as Kraft was.^[21]

There is no clear-cut division in Poland between the Germans and some other minorities, whose heritage is similar in some respects due to centuries of assimilation, Germanisation and intermarriage, but differs in other respects due to either ancient regional West Slavic roots or Polonisation. Examples of such minorities include the Slovincians (Lebakaschuben), the Masurians and the Silesians of Upper Silesia. While in the past these people have been claimed for both Polish and German ethnicity, it really depends on their self-perception which they choose to belong to.

German Poles

German Poles (German: Deutsche Polen, Polish: Polacy pochodzenia niemieckiego) may refer to either Poles of German descent or sometimes to Polish citizens whose ancestors held German citizenship before World War II, regardless of their ethnicity.

After the flight and expulsion of Germans from Poland, the largest of a series of flights and expulsions of Germans in Europe during and after World War II, over 1 million former citizens of Germany were naturalized and granted Polish citizenship. Some of them were forced to stay in Poland, while others wanted to stay because these territories were inhabited by their families for hundreds of years. The lowest estimate by West German Schieder commission of 1953, is that 910,000 former German citizens were granted Polish citizenship by 1950.^[22] Higher estimates say that 1,043,550^[23] or 1,165,000^[24][25] were naturalized as Polish citizens by 1950.

However, the vast majority of those people were the so-called "autochthons" who were allowed to stay in post-war Poland after declaring Polish ethnicity in a special verification process.^[26] Therefore, most of them were inhabitants of Polish descent of the pre-war border regions of Upper Silesia and Warmia-Masuria. Sometimes they were called Wasserpolnisch or Wasserpolak. Despite their ethnic background, they were allowed to reclaim their former German citizenship on application and under German Basic Law were "considered as not having been deprived of their German citizenship if they have established their domicile in Germany after May 8, 1945 and have not expressed a contrary intention."^[27] Because of this fact many of them left People's Republic of Poland due to its undemocratic political system and economic problems.^[28]

It is estimated that, in the Cold War era, hundreds of thousands of Polish citizens decided to emigrate to West Germany and, to a lesser extent, to East Germany.^[29][30][31] Despite that, hundreds or tens of thousands of former German citizens remained in Poland. Some of them created families with other Poles, who, in the vast majority, were settlers from central Poland or were resettled from the former eastern territories of Poland by the Soviets to the Recovered Territories (Former eastern territories of Germany).

Education

Willy-Brandt-Schule in Warsaw

There is one German international school in Poland, Willy-Brandt-Schule in Warsaw.

Notable Poles of German descent

Jan Henryk Dąbrowski, the Polish national hero of German ancestry (mother of German descent).

Donald Tusk, ex-Prime Minister of Poland, current President of the European Council. His mother was a native German-speaker.^[32]

• Władysław Anders, general in the Polish Army and a politician with the Polish government-in-exile in London.
• Grzegorz Braun, journalist, academic lecturer, movie director, screenwriter and politician.
• Izabela Czartoryska, noble lady, writer, art collector, and founder of the first Polish museum, the Czartoryski Museum in Kraków.
• Stanisław Ernest Denhoff, noble, politician and military leader.
• Jan Henryk Dąbrowski, general and Polish national hero.
• Adam Fastnacht, historian and member of Armia Krajowa.
• Jan Fethke, film director, author and famous proponent of Esperanto language.
• Emil August Fieldorf, Polish general during World War I and World War II.
• Franciszek Fiszer, author and philosopher.
• Anna German, singer.
• Małgorzata Gersdorf, lawyer, judge, Head of Polish Supreme Court
• Roman Giertych, lawyer, advocate, former Deputy Prime Minister
• Henryk Grohman, industrialist.
• Józef Haller, Polish general, political and social activist.
• Maximilian Kolbe, Catholic saint killed in Auschwitz concentration camp.
• Henryk Korowicz, professor, economist, and rector of Academy of Foreign Trade in Lwów.
• Janusz Korwin-Mikke, politician and writer.^[33]
• Gustaf Kossinna, linguist and archaeologist.
• Juliusz Karol Kunitzer, industrialist, economic activist, philanthropist and industrial magnate in Congress Poland.
• Joachim Lelewel, Polish historian and politician.
• Samuel Linde, linguist, librarian, and lexicographer of the Polish language.
• Tadeusz Manteuffel, historian.
• Suzanna von Nathusius, child actor.
• Wilhelm Orlik-Rückemann, Polish general and military commander.
• Erich von dem Bach Zelewski, high ranking SS officer.
• Emilia Plater, noble lady and revolutionary.
• Nelli Rokita, politician of Law and Justice party in Poland.
• Romuald Traugutt, dictator of January Uprising
• Karol Ernest Wedel, candy maker.
• Edward Werner, economist, judge and politician in the Second Polish Republic.
• Kamil Glik, professional footballer who plays for Serie A club Torino and the Poland national football team.
• Miroslav Klose, professional footballer, Germany national football team and FIFA World Cup all-time top goalscorer, and former striker for Italian football club S.S. Lazio.
• Donald Tusk, former Prime Minister of Poland, current President of the European Council.^[32]

German media in Poland

• Schlesisches Wochenblatt
• Polen-Rundschau
• Schlesien Aktuell - German-speaking radio station from Opole
• Radio Polonia (broadcasting in German for half an hour a day)
• Polen am Morgen - Online-newspaper, published daily since 1998

See also

• Waldemar Kraft
• Bilingual communes in Poland
• German Minority (political party)
• Germans in the Czech Republic
• Polish minority in Germany
• Olędrzy
• Vistula Germans in Russian Poland
• Bambrzy
• SGGEE German history and genealogy in Russian Poland; includes map of German settlements in Russian Poland as referenced above.

Notes

References

• Dual Citizenship in Opole Silesia in the Context of European Integration, Tomasz Kamusella, Opole University, in Facta Universitatis, series Philosophy, Sociology and Psychology, Vol 2, No 10, 2003, pp. 699–716
• Scholtz-Knobloch, Till (2002). Die deutsche Minderheit in Oberschlesien - Selbstreflexion und politisch-soziale Situation unter besonderer Berücksichtigung des so genannten "Oppelner Schlesiens (Westoberschlesien)" (in German). Goerlitz: Senfkorn-Verlag. ISBN 3-935330-02-2.
• Zybura, Marek (2004). Niemcy w Polsce (in Polish). Wrocław: Wydawnictwo Dolnośląskie. ISBN 83-7384-171-7.
• Rabagliati, Alastair (2001). A Minority Vote. Participation of the German and Belarusian Minorities within the Polish Political System 1989-1999. Kraków: Zakład Wydawniczy NOMOS. ISBN 83-88508-18-0.

Further reading

• de Zayas, Alfred M.: Die deutschen Vertriebenen. Graz, 2006. ISBN 3-902475-15-3.
• de Zayas, Alfred M.: Heimatrecht ist Menschenrecht. München, 2001. ISBN 3-8004-1416-3.
• de Zayas, Alfred M.: A terrible Revenge. New York, 1994. ISBN 1-4039-7308-3.
• de Zayas, Alfred M.: Nemesis at Potsdam. London, 1977. ISBN 0-8032-4910-1.
• de Zayas, Alfred M.: 50 Thesen zur Vertreibung. München, 2008. ISBN 978-3-9812110-0-9.
• Douglas, R.M.: Orderly and Humane. The Expulsion of the Germans after the Second World War. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-30016-660-6.
• Kleineberg A., Marx, Ch., Knobloch E., Lelgemann D.: Germania und die Insel Thule. Die Entschlüsselung vo Ptolemaios: "Atlas der Oikumene". Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 2010.
• Naimark, Norman: Fires of Hatred. Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe. Cambridge Harvard Press, 2001.
• Prauser, Steffen and Rees, Arfon: The Expulsion of the "German" Communities from Eastern Europe at the End of the Second World War. Florence, Italy, European University Institute, 2004.
• Cordell, Karl (June 1996). "Politics and society in Upper Silesia today: The German minority since 1945". Nationalities Papers. 24 (2): 269–285. doi:10.1080/00905999608408441.
• Cordell, Karl; Stefan Wolff (June 2005). "Ethnic Germans in Poland and the Czech Republic: a comparative evaluation". Nationalities Papers. 33 (2): 255–276. doi:10.1080/00905990500088610.
• Dyboski, Roman (September 1923). "Poland and the Problem of National Minorities". Journal of the British Institute of International Affairs. Blackwell Publishing. 2 (5): 179–200. doi:10.2307/3014543. JSTOR 3014543.
• Fleming, Michael (December 2003). "The Limits of the German Minority Project in Post-communist Poland: Scale, Space and Democratic Deliberation". Nationalities Papers. 31 (4): 391–411. doi:10.1080/0090599032000152915.