Essential oil

An essential oil is a concentrated hydrophobic liquid containing volatile (defined as "the tendency of a substance to vaporize") aroma compounds from plants. Essential oils are also known as volatile oils, ethereal oils, aetherolea, or simply as the oil of the plant from which they were extracted, such as oil of clove. An oil is "essential" in the sense that it contains the "essence of" the plant's fragrance—the characteristic fragrance of the plant from which it is derived.[1] The term essential used here does not mean indispensable as with the terms essential amino acid or essential fatty acid which are so called since they are nutritionally required by a given living organism.[2] In contrast to fatty oils, essential oils evaporate completely without leaving a stain (residue) when dabbed onto filter paper.

Essential oils are generally extracted by distillation, often by using steam. Other processes include expression, solvent extraction, sfumatura, absolute oil extraction, resin tapping, wax embedding, and cold pressing. They are used in perfumes, cosmetics, soaps and other products, for flavoring food and drink, and for adding scents to incense and household cleaning products.

Essential oils are often used for aromatherapy, a form of alternative medicine in which healing effects are ascribed to aromatic compounds. Aromatherapy may be useful to induce relaxation, but there is not sufficient evidence that essential oils can effectively treat any condition.[3] Improper use of essential oils may cause harm including allergic reactions and skin irritation, and children may be particularly susceptible to the toxic effects of improper use.[4][5]

History

Essential oils have been used in folk medicine throughout history. The earliest recorded mention of the techniques and methods used to produce essential oils is believed to be that of Ibn al-Baitar (1188–1248), an Al-Andalusian (Muslim-controlled Spain) physician, pharmacist and chemist.[6]

Rather than refer to essential oils themselves, modern works typically discuss specific chemical compounds of which the essential oils are composed. For example: methyl salicylate rather than "oil of wintergreen".[7][8]

Interest in essential oils has revived in recent decades with the popularity of aromatherapy, a branch of alternative medicine that uses essential oils and other aromatic compounds. Oils are volatilized, diluted in a carrier oil and used in massage, diffused in the air by a nebulizer, heated over a candle flame, or burned as incense.

Medical applications proposed by those who sell medicinal oils range from skin treatments to remedies for cancer and often are based solely on historical accounts of use of essential oils for these purposes. Claims for the efficacy of medical treatments, and treatment of cancers in particular, are now subject to regulation in most countries.

Production

Distillation

Most common essential oils such as lavender, peppermint, tea tree oil, patchouli, and eucalyptus are distilled. Raw plant material, consisting of the flowers, leaves, wood, bark, roots, seeds, or peel, is put into an alembic (distillation apparatus) over water. As the water is heated, the steam passes through the plant material, vaporizing the volatile compounds. The vapors flow through a coil, where they condense back to liquid, which is then collected in the receiving vessel.

Most oils are distilled in a single process. One exception is ylang-ylang (Cananga odorata) which is purifed through a fractional distillation.

The recondensed water is referred to as a hydrosol, hydrolat, herbal distillate, or plant water essence, which may be sold as another fragrant product. Hydrosols include rose water, lavender water, lemon balm, clary sage, and orange blossom water. The use of herbal distillates in cosmetics is increasing.

Expression

Most citrus peel oils are expressed mechanically or cold-pressed (similar to olive oil extraction). Due to the relatively large quantities of oil in citrus peel and low cost to grow and harvest the raw materials, citrus-fruit oils are cheaper than most other essential oils. Lemon or sweet orange oils are obtained as byproducts of the citrus industry.

Before the discovery of distillation, all essential oils were extracted by pressing.[9]

Solvent extraction

Most flowers contain too little volatile oil to undergo expression, but their chemical components are too delicate and easily denatured by the high heat used in steam distillation. Instead, a solvent such as hexane or supercritical carbon dioxide is used to extract the oils.[10] Extracts from hexane and other hydrophobic solvents are called concretes, which are a mixture of essential oil, waxes, resins, and other lipophilic (oil-soluble) plant material.

Although highly fragrant, concretes contain large quantities of non-fragrant waxes and resins. Often, another solvent, such as ethyl alcohol, is used to extract the fragrant oil from the concrete. The alcohol solution is chilled to −18 °C (0 °F) for more than 48 hours which causes the waxes and lipids to precipitate out. The precipitates are then filtered out and the ethanol is removed from the remaining solution by evaporation, vacuum purge, or both, leaving behind the absolute.

Supercritical carbon dioxide is used as a solvent in supercritical fluid extraction. This method can avoid petrochemical residues in the product and the loss of some "top notes" when steam distillation is used. It does not yield an absolute directly. The supercritical carbon dioxide will extract both the waxes and the essential oils that make up the concrete. Subsequent processing with liquid carbon dioxide, achieved in the same extractor by merely lowering the extraction temperature, will separate the waxes from the essential oils. This lower temperature process prevents the decomposition and denaturing of compounds. When the extraction is complete, the pressure is reduced to ambient and the carbon dioxide reverts to a gas, leaving no residue.

Florasols extraction

Florasol is another solvent used to obtain essential oils. It was originally developed as a refrigerant to replace Freon. Although Florasol is an "ozone-friendly" product, it has a high global warming potential (GWP; 100-yr GWP = 1430).[11] The European Union has banned its use, with a phase-out process that began in 2011, to be completed in 2017.[12] One advantage of Florasol is that the extraction of essential oils occurs at or below room temperature so degradation through high temperature extremes does not occur. The essential oils are mostly pure and contain little to no foreign substances.

Production quantities

Estimates of total production of essential oils are difficult to obtain. One estimate, compiled from data in 1989, 1990, and 1994 from various sources, gives the following total production, in tonnes, of essential oils for which more than 1,000 tonnes were produced.[13]

OilTonnes
Sweet orange12,000
Mentha arvensis4,800
Peppermint3,200
Cedarwood2,600
Lemon2,300
Eucalyptus globulus2,070
Litsea cubeba2,000
Clove (leaf)2,000
Spearmint1,300

Pharmacology and medical uses

The medical value of essential oils is the subject of ongoing research, and varies between species, presence or absence of active compound(s), route of administration, potency, and dosage. Some may be inappropriate for persons with certain medical conditions or who take certain prescriptions or over-the-counter (OTC) medications.

Taken by mouth, many essential oils can be dangerous in high concentrations. Typical effects begin with a burning feeling, followed by salivation. In the stomach, the effect is carminative, relaxing the gastric sphincter and encouraging eructation (belching). Further down the gut, the effect typically is antispasmodic.[14] Typical ingredients for such applications include eucalyptus oils, menthol, capsaicin, anise, and camphor.

Different essential oils may have drastically different pharmacology. Some act as locally anesthetic counterirritants and, thereby, exert an antitussive effect.[14][15]

The usage of essential oils for their cicatrizant or skin healing properties is promoted by various essential oil vendors.

An example of the medicinal value of essential oils is thymol, found in oil of the common spice thyme. Thymol is part of a naturally occurring class of compounds known as biocides, with strong antimicrobial attributes when used alone or with other biocides such as carvacrol.[16][17][18]

Some essential oils, such as those of juniper and agathosma, are valued for their diuretic effects.[19] With relatively recent concerns about the overuse of antibacterial agents,[20] many essential oils have seen a resurgence in off-label use for such properties and are being examined for this use clinically.[21]

Many essential oils affect the skin and mucous membranes in ways that are valuable or harmful. Many essential oils, particularly tea tree oil, may cause contact dermatitis.[22][23][24][25] They are used in antiseptics and liniments in particular. Typically, they produce rubefacient irritation at first and then counterirritant numbness. Turpentine oil and camphor are two typical examples of oils that cause such effects. Menthol and some others produce a feeling of cold followed by a sense of burning. This is caused by its effect on heat-sensing nerve endings. Some essential oils, such as clove oil or eugenol, were popular for many hundred years in dentistry as antiseptics and local anesthetics.

Use in aromatherapy

Essential oils are used in aromatherapy as part of, for example, essential oil diffusers.

Aromatherapy is a form of alternative medicine in which healing effects are ascribed to the aromatic compounds in essential oils and other plant extracts. Aromatherapy may be useful to induce relaxation, but there is not sufficient evidence that essential oils can effectively treat any condition.[26] Essential oils should not be interpreted to be cures for chronic disease, or other illnesses, as scientific research does not support this.[27] Much of the research on the use of essential oils for health purposes has serious methodological errors. In a systemic review of 201 published studies on essential oils as alternative medicines, only 10 were found to be of acceptable methodological quality, and even these 10 were still weak in reference to scientific standards.[28] Use of essential oils may cause harm including allergic reactions and skin irritation; there has been at least one case of death.[29] As such, the use of essential oils as an alternative medicine should be approached with caution.

Use as pesticide

Research has shown that essential oils have potential as a natural pesticide. In case studies, certain oils have been shown to have a variety of deterring effects on pests, specifically insects and select arthropods.[30] These effects may include repelling, inhibiting digestion, stunting growth,[31] decreasing rate of reproduction, or death of pests that consume the oil. However, the molecules within the oils that cause these effects are normally non-toxic for mammals. These specific actions of the molecules allow for widespread use of these green pesticides without harmful effects to anything other than pests.[32] Essential oils that have been investigated include rose, lemon grass, lavender, thyme, peppermint, and eucalyptus.[33]

Although they may not be the perfect replacement for all synthetic pesticides, essential oils have prospects for crop or indoor plant protection, urban pest control,[34] and marketed insect repellants, such as bug spray. Certain essential oils have been shown in studies to be comparable, if not exceeding, in effectiveness to DEET, which is currently marketed as the most effective mosquito repellent. Although essential oils are effective as pesticides when first applied in uses such as mosquito repellent applied to the skin, it is only effective in the vapor stage. Since this stage is relatively short-lived, creams and polymer mixtures are used in order to elongate the vapor period of effective repellency.[30]

In any form, using essential oils as green pesticides rather than synthetic pesticides has ecological benefits such as decreased residual actions.[33] In addition, increased use of essential oils as pest control could have not only ecological, but economical benefits as the essential oil market diversifies[32] and popularity increases among organic farmers and environmentally conscious consumers.[31]

Dilution

Essential oils are usually lipophilic (literally: "oil-loving") compounds that usually are not miscible with water. They can be diluted in solvents like pure ethanol and polyethylene glycol. The most common way to safely dilute essential oils for topical use is in a carrier oil. This can be any vegetable oil readily available, the most popular for skin care being jojoba, coconut, wheat germ, olive and avocado.[35]

Raw materials

Essential oils are derived from sections of plants. Some plants, like the bitter orange, are sources of several types of essential oil.

Bark
Berries
Flowers
Leaves
Peel
Resin
Rhizome
Roots
Seeds
Woods

Balsam of Peru

Balsam of Peru, an essential oil derived from the Myroxylon, is used in food and drink for flavoring, in perfumes and toiletries for fragrance, and in medicine and pharmaceutical items for healing properties.[36] However, a number of national and international surveys have identified Balsam of Peru as being in the "top five" allergens most commonly causing patch test allergic reactions in people referred to dermatology clinics.[37][38][39]

Garlic oil

Garlic oil is an essential oil derived from garlic.[40]

Eucalyptus oil

Most eucalyptus oil on the market is produced from the leaves of Eucalyptus globulus. Steam-distilled eucalyptus oil is used throughout Asia, Africa, Latin America and South America as a primary cleaning/disinfecting agent added to soaped mop and countertop cleaning solutions; it also possesses insect and limited vermin control properties.[41] Note, however, there are hundreds of species of eucalyptus, and perhaps some dozens are used to various extents as sources of essential oils. Not only do the products of different species differ greatly in characteristics and effects, but also the products of the very same tree can vary grossly.[42]

Lavender oil

Lavender essential oil sold at a market in France.

Lavender oil has long been used in the production of perfume.[43] However, it can be estrogenic and antiandrogenic, causing problems for prepubescent boys and pregnant women, in particular.[44] Lavender essential oil is also used as an insect repellent.[45]

Rose oil

Rose oil is produced from the petals of Rosa damascena and Rosa centifolia. Steam-distilled rose oil is known as "rose otto", while the solvent extracted product is known as "rose absolute".

Dangers

The potential danger of an essential oil is sometimes relative to its level or grade of purity, and sometimes related to the toxicity of specific chemical components of the oil. Many essential oils are designed exclusively for their aroma-therapeutic quality; these essential oils generally should not be applied directly to the skin in their undiluted or "neat" form. Some can cause severe irritation, provoke an allergic reaction and, over time, prove hepatotoxic.

Some essential oils, including many of the citrus peel oils, are photosensitizers, increasing the skin's vulnerability to sunlight.[46]

Industrial users of essential oils should consult the safety data sheets (SDS) to determine the hazards and handling requirements of particular oils. Even certain therapeutic grade oils can pose potential threats to individuals with epilepsy or pregnant women.

Essential Oil use in children can pose a danger when misused because of their thin skin and immature livers. This might cause them to be more susceptible to toxic effects than adults. [5]

Flammability

The flash point of each essential oil is different. Many of the common essential oils, such as tea tree, lavender, and citrus oils, are classed as a Class 3 Flammable Liquid, as they have a flash point of 50–60 °C.

Gynecomastia

Estrogenic and antiandrogenic activity have been reported by in vitro study of tea tree oil and lavender essential oils. Case reports suggest the oils may be implicated in some cases of gynecomastia, an abnormal breast tissue growth in prepubescent boys.[47][48] The European Commission's Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety dismissed the claims as implausible in 2008.[49] However, in 2018, a study led by J. Tyler Ramsey of the American National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences found that these oils contain eight substances that affect human hormones, increasing the level of oestrogen and decreasing the level of testosterone. Some of the substances are found in "at least 65 other essential oils".[50]

Handling

Exposure to essential oils may cause a contact dermatitis.[23][24][25] Essential oils can be aggressive toward rubbers and plastics, so care must be taken in choosing the correct handling equipment. Glass syringes are often used, but have coarse volumetric graduations. Chemistry syringes are ideal, as they resist essential oils, are long enough to enter deep vessels, and have fine graduations, facilitating quality control. Unlike traditional pipettes, which have difficulty handling viscous fluids, the chemistry syringe, also known as a positive displacement pipette, has a seal and piston arrangement which slides inside the pipette, wiping the essential oil off the pipette wall.

Ingestion

Essential oils are used extensively as GRAS flavoring agents in foods, beverages, and confectioneries according to strict Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) and flavorist standards. Pharmacopoeia standards for medicinal oils should be heeded. Some oils can be toxic to some domestic animals, cats in particular.[51] The internal use of essential oils can pose hazards to pregnant women, as some can be abortifacients in dose 0.5–10 ml, and thus should not be used during pregnancy.

Pesticide residues

There is some concern about pesticide residues in essential oils, particularly those used therapeutically. For this reason, many practitioners of aromatherapy buy organically produced oils. Not only are pesticides present in trace quantities, but also the oils themselves are used in tiny quantities and usually in high dilutions. Where there is a concern about pesticide residues in food essential oils, such as mint or orange oils, the proper criterion is not solely whether the material is organically produced, but whether it meets the government standards based on actual analysis of its pesticide content.[52]

Pregnancy

The use of essential oils in pregnancy is highly not recommended due to inadequate published evidence to demonstrate evidence of safety.[53] Pregnant women often report an abnormal sensitivity to smells and taste,[54] and essential oils can cause irritation and nausea.

Toxicology

The following table lists the LD50 or median lethal dose for common oils; this is the dose required to kill half the members of a tested animal population. LD50 is intended as a guideline only, and reported values can vary widely due to differences in tested species and testing conditions.[55]

Common NameOral LD50Dermal LD50Notes
Neem14 g/kg>2 g/kg
Lemon myrtle2.43 g/kg2.25 g/kg
Frankincense>5 g/kg>5 g/kgBoswellia carterii
Frankincense>2 g/kg>2 g/kgBoswellia sacra
Indian frankincense>2 g/kg>2 g/kgBoswellia serrata
Ylang-ylang>5 g/kg>5 g/kg
Cedarwood>5 g/kg>5 g/kg
Roman chamomile>5 g/kg>5 g/kg
White camphor>5 g/kg>5 g/kgCinnamomum camphora, extracted from leaves
Yellow camphor3.73 g/kg>5 g/kgCinnamomum camphora, extracted from bark
Hot oil3.80 g/kg>5 g/kgCinnamomum camphora, oil extracted from leaves
Cassia2.80 g/kg0.32 g/kg

Standardization of its derived products

In 2002, ISO published ISO 4720 in which the botanical names of the relevant plants are standardized.[56] The rest of the standards with regards to this topic can be found in the section of ICS 71.100.60 [57]

See also

References

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  2. ↑ Reeds, P. J. (2000). "Dispensable and indispensable amino acids for humans". The Journal of Nutrition. 130 (7): 1835S–40S. doi:10.1093/jn/130.7.1835S. PMID 10867060.
  3. ↑ Lee, Myeong Soo; Choi, Jiae Choi (2012). "Aromatherapy for health care: an overview of systematic reviews". Maturitas. 3 (71): 257–260.
  4. ↑ Posadzki, P; Alotaibi, A; Ernst, E (2012). "Adverse effects of aromatherapy: A systematic review of case reports and case series". The International Journal of Risk & Safety in Medicine. 24 (3): 147–61. doi:10.3233/JRS-2012-0568. PMID 22936057.
  5. 1 2 "Essential Oils: Poisonous when Misused". www.poison.org. Archived from the original on 2017-07-08. Retrieved 2017-12-01.
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  9. ↑ Ryman, Daniele (1984). The Aromatherapy Handbook: The Secret Healing Power Of Essential Oils. Century Publishing CO. Ltd. pp. Chapter 3. ISBN 9780852072158.
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  41. ↑ Batish, Daizy R.; Singh, Harminder Pal; Kohlia, Ravinder Kumar; Kaur, Shalinder (10 December 2008). "Eucalyptus essential oil as a natural pesticide". Forest Ecology and Management. 256 (12): 2166–2174. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2008.08.008.
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  44. ↑ Henley, Derek V; Lipson, Natasha; Korach, Kenneth S; Bloch, Clifford A (2007). "Prepubertal Gynecomastia Linked to Lavender and Tea Tree Oils". New England Journal of Medicine. 356 (5): 479–485. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa064725. PMID 17267908.
  45. ↑ Debboun, Mustapha; Frances, Stephen P.; Strickman, Daniel, eds. (2014). Insect Repellents Handbook (2nd ed.). CRC Press. p. 362. ISBN 978-1466553552.
  46. ↑ Kaddu, Steven; Kerl, Helmut; Wolf, Peter (2001). "Accidental bullous phototoxic reactions to bergamot aromatherapy oil". Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 45 (3): 458–61. doi:10.1067/mjd.2001.116226. PMID 11511848.
  47. ↑ Henley, Derek V.; Lipson, Natasha; Korach, Kenneth S.; Bloch, Clifford A. (2007). "Prepubertal Gynecomastia Linked to Lavender and Tea Tree Oils". New England Journal of Medicine. 356 (5): 479–85. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa064725. PMID 17267908.
  48. ↑ "Oils make male breasts develop". BBC News. February 1, 2007. Archived from the original on August 29, 2007. Retrieved September 9, 2007.
  49. ↑ Scientific Committee on Consumer Products (December 16, 2008), Opinion on tea tree oil (PDF) (Report No. SCCP/1155/08), Directorate-General for Health and Consumers: European Commission: European Union, archived (PDF) from the original on September 12, 2014
  50. ↑ "More evidence essential oils 'make male breasts develop'". BBC. 18 March 2018. Retrieved 18 March 2018. A suspected link between abnormal breast growth in young boys and the use of lavender and tea tree oils has been given new weight, after a study found eight chemicals contained in the oils interfere with hormones.
  51. ↑ Bischoff, K.; Guale, Fessesswork (1998). "Australian Tea Tree (Melaleuca Alternifolia) Oil Poisoning in Three Purebred Cats". Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation. 10 (2): 208–10. doi:10.1177/104063879801000223. PMID 9576358.
  52. ↑ Menary, RC (2008). Minimising pesticide residues in essential oils. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation. ISBN 9781741517095.
  53. ↑ Bone, Kerry (2000). Principles and Practice of Phytotherapy: Modern Herbal Medicine. Elsevier. p. 453. ISBN 978-0-443-06992-5.
  54. ↑ Nordin, S.; Broman, D. A.; Olofsson, J. K.; Wulff, M (2004). "A Longitudinal Descriptive Study of Self-reported Abnormal Smell and Taste Perception in Pregnant Women". Chemical Senses. 29 (5): 391–402. doi:10.1093/chemse/bjh040. PMID 15201206.
  55. ↑ Dweck, AC (September 2009). "Toxicology of essential oils reviewed" (PDF). Personal Care. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2011-07-18.
  56. ↑ International Organization for Standardization. "ISO 4720:2002 Essential oils – Nomenclature". Archived from the original on June 6, 2011. Retrieved April 23, 2009.
  57. ↑ International Organization for Standardization. "71.100.60: Essential oils". Archived from the original on June 6, 2011. Retrieved June 14, 2009.

Further reading

  • Baser, K.H.C. & G. Buchbauer (2010). Handbook of Essential Oils: Science, Technology and Applications. CRC Press, Boca Raton, London, New York. ISBN 978-1-4200-6315-8.
  • Schnaubelt, Kurt (1999). Advanced Aromatherapy: The Science of Essential Oil Therapy. Healing Arts Press. ISBN 978-0-89281-743-6.
  • Sellar, Wanda (2001). The Directory of Essential Oils (Reprint ed.). Essex: The C.W. Daniel Company, Ltd. ISBN 978-0-85207-346-9.
  • Tisserand, Robert (1995). Essential Oil Safety: A Guide for Health Care Professionals. Churchill Livingstone. ISBN 978-0-443-05260-6.
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