Central African lion

Central African lion
Scientific classification
Kingdom:Animalia
Phylum:Chordata
Class:Mammalia
Order:Carnivora
Suborder:Feliformia
Family:Felidae
Subfamily:Pantherinae
Genus:Panthera
Species: P. leo
Subspecies: P. l. leo
Trinomial name
Panthera leo leo
(Linnaeus, 1758)

The Central African lion is a Panthera leo leo population in northern parts of Central and East Africa.[1][2] This population has been fragmented into small and isolated groups since the 1950s. It is threatened by loss of habitat and prey base and trophy hunting.[3][4][5][6] In 2005, a Lion Conservation Strategy was developed for West and Central Africa.[7]

Results of phylogeographic research indicate that the Central African lion clade forms a phylogenetic group with lion samples from West and North Africa, the Middle East and India. This group diverged from lions in southern parts of East and Southern Africa at least 50,000 years ago.[8] Morphometric analysis of lion skulls corroborates the assessment of two major evolutionary lion clusters, one in Sub-Saharan Africa and the other in North Africa and Asia.[9]

Characteristics

The lion's fur varies in colour from light buff to dark brown. It has rounded ears and a black tail tuft. Average head-to-body length of male lions is 2.47–2.84 m (8.1–9.3 ft) with a weight of 148.2–190.9 kg (327–421 lb). Females are smaller and less heavy.[10]

Taxonomy

Range map including proposed clades according to genetic research

A lion from Constantine, Algeria was the type specimen for the specific name Felis leo used by Linnaeus in 1758.[11] In the 20th century, several lion zoological specimens from Central Africa were described and proposed as subspecies:[12]

In the following decades, there has been much debate regarding classification of lion subspecies:

In 2017, lion populations in North, West and Central Africa and Asia were subsumed to the nominate subspecies P. l. leo by the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group.[2]

Phylogeographic research

Since the beginning of the 21st century, several phylogenetic studies were conducted to aid clarifying the taxonomic status of lion samples kept in natural history museums and collected in the wild. Scientists analysed between 32 and 480 lion samples from up to 22 countries. They all agree that the species lion comprises two evolutionary groups, one in the northern and eastern parts of its historical range, the other in East and Southern Africa; these groups diverged at least 50,000 years ago. They assume that tropical rainforest and the East African Rift constituted major barriers between the two groups.[19][20][21][22][23][24]

Captive lions in Ethiopia's Addis Ababa Zoo were found to be genetically similar to wild lions from Cameroon and Chad.[25]

Among six samples from captive lions that originated in Ethiopia, one clustered with samples from the Sahel, but five clustered with samples from East Africa.[22] For a subsequent study, also eight wild lion samples from the Ethiopian Highlands were included in the analysis. Of these,[24]

Scientists therefore assume that the Ethiopian Highlands east and west of the Rift Valley is a genetic admixture zone between both phylogeographic groups. Samples from Garamba National Park also clustered with the Central African lion.[24]

Distribution and habitat

Habitat in Bénoué National Park
Habitat in Waza National Park

The historical range of the Central African lion reached from the lower Niger river in West Africa to Ethiopia, encompassing most of the Sahel zone, where habitats range from forest patches and grassland, edges of rainforest and clearings in rainforest mixed with savannah grassland, semi-desert landscape at sea level to montane moorland and dry woodland that is partly flooded during the rainy season from July to December.[3][26][27] Its range has declined in:

Contemporary lion distribution and habitat quality in savannahs of West and Central Africa was assessed in 2005, and Lion Conservation Units (LCU) mapped.[7] Educated guesses for size of populations in these LCUs ranged from 2,765 to 2,419 individuals between 2002 and 2012.[3][35]

Range countriesLion Conservation UnitsArea in km2
CameroonWaza and Bénoué National Parks16,134[5]
Central African Republiceastern part of the country; Bozoum and Nana Barya Faunal Reserves339,481[30]
Chadsoutheastern part133,408[35]
Democratic Republic of CongoGaramba-Bili Uere115,671[36]
South Sudan, Sudan331,834[7]
South Sudan, EthiopiaBoma-Gambella106,941[7]
EthiopiaSouth Omo, Nechisar, Bale, Welmel-Genale, Awash National Parks, Ogaden93,274[35]
Total936,465

Ecology and behaviour

In Waza National Park, three female and two male lions were radio-collared in 1999 and tracked until 2001. The females moved in home ranges of between 352 and 724 km2 (136 and 280 sq mi) and stayed inside the park during most of the survey period. The males used home ranges of between 428 and 1,054 km2 (165 and 407 sq mi), both inside and outside the park, where they repeatedly killed livestock. One was killed and the other shot at by local people. After the pellets were removed, he recovered and shifted his home range to inside the park, and was not observed killing livestock any more.[27] Lions probably prey on livestock when wild prey species occur at lower densities, especially during the wet season.[37] An interview survey among livestock owners in six villages in the park's vicinity revealed that lions attack cattle mostly during the rainy season when wild prey disperses away from artificial waterholes.[38]

Threats

In Africa, lions are killed pre-emptively or in retaliation for preying on livestock. Populations are also threatened by depletion of prey base, loss and conversion of habitat.[1] The lion population in northern Cameroon is threatened due to increased migration of people from Nigeria following the political insecurity in the region.[29]

Conservation

All lion populations in Africa have been included in CITES Appendix II since 1975.[1] In 2006, a Lion Conservation Strategy for West and Central Africa was developed in cooperation between IUCN regional offices and wildlife conservation organisations. The strategy envisages to maintain sufficient habitat, ensure a sufficient wild prey base, make lion-human coexistence sustainable and reduce factors that lead to further fragmentation of populations.[7]

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 Bauer, H.; Packer, C.; Funston, P.F.; Henschel, P.; Nowell, K. (2016). "Panthera leo". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2017-3. International Union for Conservation of Nature. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T15951A107265605.en
  2. 1 2 Kitchener, A. C.; Breitenmoser-Würsten, C.; Eizirik, E.; Gentry, A.; Werdelin, L.; Wilting, A.; Yamaguchi, N.; Abramov, A. V.; Christiansen, P.; Driscoll, C.; Duckworth, J. W.; Johnson, W.; Luo, S.-J.; Meijaard, E.; O’Donoghue, P.; Sanderson, J.; Seymour, K.; Bruford, M.; Groves, C.; Hoffmann, M.; Nowell, K.; Timmons, Z.; Tobe, S. (2017). "A revised taxonomy of the Felidae: The final report of the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group" (PDF). Cat News. Special Issue 11: 71–73.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Chardonnet, P. (2002). "Chapter II: Population Survey". Conservation of the African Lion : Contribution to a Status Survey (PDF). Paris: International Foundation for the Conservation of Wildlife, France & Conservation Force, USA. pp. 21–101. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 November 2013.
  4. 1 2 3 Bauer, H.; Van Der Merwe, S. (2004). "Inventory of free-ranging lions Panthera leo in Africa". Oryx. 38 (1): 26–31. doi:10.1017/S0030605304000055.
  5. 1 2 Tumenta, P.N., Kok, J.S., Van Rijssel, J.C., Buij, R., Croes, B.M., Funston, P.J., De Iongh, H.H. and Udo de Haes, H.A. (2010). "Threat of rapid extermination of the lion (Panthera leo leo) in Waza National Park, Northern Cameroon". African Journal of Ecology. 48 (4): 888−894.
  6. ↑ Croes, B.M., Funston, P.J., Rasmussen, G., Buij, R., Saleh, A., Tumenta, P.N. and De Iongh, H.H. (2011). "The impact of trophy hunting on lions (Panthera leo) and other large carnivores in the Bénoué Complex, northern Cameroon". Biological Conservation. 144 (12): 3064−3072.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 IUCN Cat Specialist Group (2006). Conservation Strategy for the Lion in West and Central Africa. Yaounde, Cameroon: IUCN.
  8. ↑ Bertola, L.D.; Jongbloed, H.; Van Der Gaag K.J.; De Knijff, P.; Yamaguchi, N.; Hooghiemstra, H.; Bauer, H.; Henschel, P.; White, P.A.; Driscoll, C.A.; Tende, T.; Ottosson, U.; Saidu, Y.; Vrieling, K.; de Iongh, H. H. (2016). "Phylogeographic patterns in Africa and High Resolution Delineation of genetic clades in the Lion (Panthera leo)". Scientific Reports. 6: 30807. Bibcode:2016NatSR...630807B. doi:10.1038/srep30807. PMC 4973251. PMID 27488946.
  9. ↑ Mazák, J.H. (2010). "Geographical variation and phylogenetics of modern lions based on craniometric data". Journal of Zoology. 281 (3): 194−209.
  10. ↑ Guggisberg, C. A. W. (1975). "Lion Panthera leo (Linnaeus, 1758)". Wild Cats of the World. New York: Taplinger Publishing. pp. 138–179. ISBN 978-0-8008-8324-9.
  11. ↑ Linnaeus, C. (1758). "Felis Leo". Systema naturae per regna tria naturae: secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis (in Latin). 1 (10th ed.). Holmiae (Laurentii Salvii). p. 41. Retrieved 8 September 2008.
  12. 1 2 Wozencraft, W.C. (2005). "Panthera leo". In Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M. Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 546. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494.
  13. ↑ Matschie, P. (1900). "Einige Säugethiere aus dem Hinterlande von Kamerun". Sitzungs-Berichte der Gesellschaft der Naturforschender Freunde zu Berlin. 3: 87–100.
  14. ↑ Allen, J. A. (1924). "Carnivora Collected By The American Museum Congo Expedition". Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. 47: 73–281.
  15. ↑ Allen, G. M. (1939). "A Checklist of African Mammals". Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College. 83: 1–763.
  16. ↑ Hemmer, H. (1974). "Untersuchungen zur Stammesgeschichte der Pantherkatzen (Pantherinae) Teil 3. Zur Artgeschichte des Löwen Panthera (Panthera) leo (Linnaeus, 1758)". Veröffentlichungen der Zoologischen Staatssammlung. 17: 167–280.
  17. ↑ Pocock, R. I. (1930). "The lions of Asia". Journal of the Bombay Natural Historical Society. 34: 638–665.
  18. ↑ Ellerman, J. R.; Morrison-Scott, T. C. S. (1966). Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian mammals 1758 to 1946 (Second ed.). London: British Museum of Natural History. pp. 312–313.
  19. ↑ Barnett, R.; Yamaguchi, N.; Barnes, I.; Cooper, A. (2006). "The origin, current diversity and future conservation of the modern lion (Panthera leo)" (PDF). Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 273 (1598): 2119–2125. doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3555. PMC 1635511. PMID 16901830. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 August 2007.
  20. ↑ Antunes, A.; Troyer, J. L.; Roelke, M. E.; Pecon-Slattery, J.; Packer, C.; Winterbach, C.; Winterbach, H.; Johnson, W. E. (2008). "The Evolutionary Dynamics of the Lion Panthera leo Revealed by Host and Viral Population Genomics". PLOS Genetics. 4 (11): e1000251. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000251. PMC 2572142. PMID 18989457.
  21. ↑ Mazák, J.H. (2010). "Geographical variation and phylogenetics of modern lions based on craniometric data". Journal of Zoology. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2010.00694.x. ISSN 0952-8369.
  22. 1 2 Bertola, L. D.; Van Hooft, W. F.; Vrieling, K.; Uit De Weerd, D.R.; York, D. S.; Bauer, H.; Prins, H.H.T.; Funston, P.J.; Udo De Haes, H.A.; Leirs, H.; Van Haeringen, W.A.; Sogbohossou, E.; Tumenta, P.N.; De Iongh, H.H. (2011). "Genetic diversity, evolutionary history and implications for conservation of the lion (Panthera leo) in West and Central Africa" (PDF). Journal of Biogeography. 38 (7): 1356–1367. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2011.02500.x.
  23. ↑ Dubach, J.M., Briggs, M.B., White, P.A., Ament, B.A., & Patterson, B.D. (2013). "Genetic perspectives on "Lion Conservation Units" in Eastern and Southern Africa". Conservation Genetics. 14 (4): 741−755.
  24. 1 2 3 Bertola, L.D.; Jongbloed, H.; Van Der Gaag, K.J.; De Knijff, P.; Yamaguchi, N.; Hooghiemstra, H.; Bauer, H.; Henschel, P.; White, P.A.; Driscoll, C.A. & Tende, T. (2016). "Phylogeographic patterns in Africa and High Resolution Delineation of genetic clades in the Lion (Panthera leo)". Scientific Reports. 6: 30807. Bibcode:2016NatSR...630807B. doi:10.1038/srep30807. PMC 4973251. PMID 27488946.
  25. ↑ Bruche, S.; Gusset, M.; Lippold, S.; Barnett, R.; Eulenberger, K.; Junhold, J.; Driscoll, C. A.; Hofreiter, M. (2012). "A genetically distinct lion (Panthera leo) population from Ethiopia". European Journal of Wildlife Research. 59 (2): 215–225. doi:10.1007/s10344-012-0668-5.
  26. 1 2 Yalden, D.W., Largen, M.J. & Kock, D. (1980). "Catalogue of the Mammals of Ethiopia". Monitore Zoologico Italiano. Supplemento 13 (1): 169−272.
  27. 1 2 Bauer, H. and De Iongh, H.H. (2005). "Lion (Panthera leo) home ranges and livestock conflicts in Waza National Park, Cameroon". African Journal of Ecology. 43 (3): 208−214.
  28. ↑ de Iongh, H.H., Croes, B., Rasmussen, G., Buij, R. and Funston, P. (2011). "The status of cheetah and African wild dog in the Bénoué Ecosystem, North Cameroon" (PDF). Cat News. 55: 29−31.
  29. 1 2 Brugière, D., Chardonnet, B. and Scholte, P. (2015). "Large-scale extinction of large carnivores (lion Panthera leo, cheetah Acinonyx jubatus and wild dog Lycaon pictus) in protected areas of West and Central Africa". Tropical Conservation Science. 8 (2): 513–527.
  30. 1 2 Mésochina, P., Mamang-Kanga, J.B., Chardonnet, P., Mandjo, Y. and Yaguémé, M. (2010). Statut de conservation du lion (Panthera leo Linnaeus, 1758) en République Centrafricaine. Bangui: Fondation IGF.
  31. ↑ Plumptre, A.J., Kujirakwinja, D., Treves, A., Owiunji, I. and Rainer, H. (2007). "Transboundary conservation in the greater Virunga landscape: its importance for landscape species". Biological Conservation. 134 (2): 279−287.
  32. ↑ Vanherle, N. (2011). "Inventaire et suivi de la population de lions (Panthera leo) du Parc National de Zakouma (Tchad)". Revue d’Écologie (La Terre & La Vie). 66: 317−366.
  33. ↑ Olléova, M. and Dogringar, S. (2013). Zakouma National Park: Carnivore monitoring programme. Ndjaména, Chad: African Parks.
  34. ↑ Wilson, R.T. (1979). "Wildlife in Southern Darfur, Sudan: Distribution and status at present and in the recent past". Mammalia. 43 (3): 323−338.
  35. 1 2 3 Riggio, J.; Jacobson, A.; Dollar, L.; Bauer, H.; Becker, M.; Dickman, A.; Funston, P.; Groom, R.; Henschel, P.; De Iongh, H.; Lichtenfeld, L. (2013). "The size of savannah Africa: a lion's (Panthera leo) view". Biodiversity and Conservation. 22 (1): 17–35. doi:10.1007/s10531-012-0381-4.
  36. ↑ IUCN Cat Specialist Group (2006). Conservation Strategy for the Lion Panthera leo in Eastern and Southern Africa. Pretoria, South Africa: IUCN.
  37. ↑ De Iongh, H, Bauer, H. (2008). "Ten Years of Ecological Research on Lions in Waza National Park, Northern Cameroon". Cat News 48: 29−32.
  38. ↑ Van Bommel, L., Bij de Vaate, M. D., De Boer, W. F., De longh, H. H. (2007). "Factors affecting livestock predation by lions in Cameroon". African Journal of Ecology (45): 490−498.

See also

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