Brothers Poem

Photograph of a white marble bust of a woman
A Roman sculpture of Sappho, based on a Classical Greek model. The inscription reads Σαπφω Ερεσια, or "Sappho of Eresos".

The Brothers Poem or Brothers Song is a poem by the archaic Greek poet Sappho. Lost since antiquity, it was rediscovered in 2014 on a papyrus from a private collection by Dirk Obbink, the head of Oxford University's Oxyrhynchus Papyri Project. Most of the poem survives, though the beginning has been lost. The fragment is one of a series of poems by Sappho about her brothers. It mentions two, Charaxos and Larichos, by name: this is the only extant mention of these names in Sappho's writings, though they were previously known from other ancient sources. These mentions, as well as the language used, identify the poem as being one of Sappho's works.

The poem is in the form of a speech from an unnamed speaker - possibly Sappho herself - to an addressee, whose identity is uncertain. The speaker criticises the addressee for repeating that Charaxos will return safely, instead maintaining that his safety is in the hands of the gods and offering to pray to Hera for his return. She then switches her focus from Charaxos to Larichos, who she hopes will relieve the family from their troubles when he grows up and becomes a man.

The poem has been the object of both scholarly and popular attention, and its discovery was reported in the international media. Scholars have tended to be critical of the literary value of the poem, but consider it valuable as a historical source. Much of the scholarship on the poem has focused on the question of who the speaker and the addressee in the poem are, and whether Charaxos and Larichos are the historical or fictional brothers of Sappho. Others have discussed the place of the Brothers Poem in the corpus of Sappho's poetry, and its links with Greek epic, particularly the homecoming stories told in the Odyssey. The lost initial stanza or stanzas of the poem have also been the subject of scholarly attention, with various reconstructions being put forward.

Preservation

In 2014, five fragments of papyrus, containing the remains of nine separate poems by Sappho – three previously unknown[lower-alpha 1] – were published by Dirk Obbink, Simon Burris, and Jeffrey Fish. The most impressive of these was the newly discovered Brothers Poem, which survives on P. Sapph. Obbink,[1] a piece of a critical edition of Book I[lower-alpha 2] of Sappho's poetry.[3] The Brothers Poem is followed on the fragment by nine lines of another of Sappho's works, the Kypris poem.[4]

P. Sapph. Obbink measures 176 mm × 111 mm.[4] It has been carbon-dated to between the first and third centuries AD;[5] this is consistent with the handwriting which dates to the third century AD.[4] The papyrus was reused as cartonnage – a material similar to papier-mâché, made with linen and papyrus – which Obbink suggests was used as a book cover.[lower-alpha 3][7]

The fragment – "the best-preserved Sappho papyrus in existence"[8] – was part of David Moore Robinson's collection from 1954, which he left to the University of Mississippi.[9] It was later sold at auction in 2011 to a collector in London,[10] and it was this anonymous owner who gave Obbink, the head of Oxford University's Oxrhynchus Papyri Project, access to the papyrus and permission to publish it.[11] A second piece of papyrus, Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 2289, published by Edgar Lobel in 1951, preserves enough of the Brothers Poem to show that at least one stanza preceded the well-preserved portion.[12]

Poem

Content

The Brothers Poem is in Sapphic stanzas[13] – a metre named after Sappho, in which stanzas are composed of three long lines followed by one shorter one – and is 20 lines (five stanzas) long.[4] The end of the poem is intact, but the beginning is missing: the complete poem was probably between one and three stanzas longer.[14] It is in the genre of homecoming prayers;[15] one of a series of Sappho's poems concerned with homecomings, along with fragments 5, 15, and 17.[16]

When Obbink published the Brothers Poem, he attributed it to Sappho based on its metre, dialect (Aeolic), and references to Charaxos and Larichos, known from other sources to have been Sappho's brothers.[17] It is possible that the text is an ancient forgery; though the Brothers Song was included in at least some Hellenistic editions of Sappho, a classical imitation of Sappho is still possible.[5] Nonetheless, evidence provided by Herodotus indicates that Charaxos was mentioned in poems that were attributed to Sappho during the fifth century BC; it therefore is likely that the poem is at least authentically from archaic Lesbos.[18]

The poem consists of an address by the speaker to an unnamed listener, and contains two parallel sections, about two of Sappho's brothers, Charaxos and Larichos.[19] Sappho hopes that Charaxos will return successfully from his trading voyage, and that Larichos will grow up and become a man.[20] In the first surviving stanza of the poem, the speaker upbraids the addressee for repeating that Charaxos will return home safely, saying that only the gods can know such a thing. In the next stanza, the speaker tells the addressee to send her to pray to Hera for Charaxos' safe return. This is followed by an exhortation to trust in the gods for everything else, and two traditional pieces of wisdom – that fortunes are changeable, and that the gods can bless those they favour with good fortune. The poem ends with the speaker hoping that Larichos will "[lift] his head high"[21] and "become an ανερ [man] in all senses", as Obbink puts it.[22]

Characters

The poem takes the form of an address from one character to another, neither of whom is named.[23] The question of whether, and to what extent, the speaker of the poem can be identified with Sappho herself is central to interpreting the poem.[24] André Lardinois observes that most of the identified speakers in Sappho's poetry are female,[25] Melissa Mueller identifies the speaker as Sappho,[26] and the poem has generally been interpreted as being autobiographical.[27] Not all scholars have identified the speaker with the historical Sappho; Bär and Eva Stehle both argue that the speaker is a fictionalised or literary version of Sappho,[28][29] though Obbink's paper announcing the discovery of the poem 2014 refers to the narrator throughout as "a speaker".[30]

The addressee of the poem is not named in the surviving text,[31] but many suggestions have been made as to their identity – Camillo Neri lists eleven possible candidates.[32][lower-alpha 4] Obbink suggests that the two most likely candidates are Rhodopis,[lower-alpha 5] a courtesan said by the Greek historian Herodotus to have been the lover of Charaxos, and Sappho's mother, to whom Sappho addressed other poems.[35] Most scholars agree that the addressee is some concerned friend or relative of Charaxos, many selecting Sappho's mother as the most likely option.[36]

This is not universally agreed upon. Anton Bierl argues that Sappho's offer to pray to Hera is contrasted with a masculine ideology in which the pursuit of wealth is the solution to the family's problems, and therefore suggests a male relative of Sappho as the addressee of the poem.[37] Lardinois sees the argument that Sappho's mother could have gone to pray to Hera for her son's safe return herself, and therefore it does not make sense for her to send Sappho to do so on her behalf, as the strongest against the thesis that the addressee is Sappho's mother, arguing on this basis for a male addressee.[36] In contrast, Mueller and Leslie Kurke both argue that the addressee is probably meant to be female, based on Sappho's use of the word θρυλεω to describe their speech: meaning "chattering" or "babbling", the word has negative connotations which would make Sappho unlikely to use it to address a man.[31][38] Anja Bettenworth has argued that the addressee is of a lower social status than Sappho, again based on the use of θρυλεω, but Kurke argues that the addressee is likely to be in a position of authority over Sappho, as Sappho expects them to send her to pray to Hera.[39]

Two named characters appear in the poem, Charaxos and Larichos. Ancient biographers of Sappho called both Charaxos and Larichos Sappho's brothers.[25] Outside of Sappho, Charaxos is first mentioned by Herodotus, who tells of his love for the courtesan Rhodopis; the earliest testimonium to mention Larichos is Athenaeus, who says that in his youth he was a wine-pourer in the prytaneum (town hall) in Mytilene.[40] Modern scholars are uncertain whether Charaxos and Larichos were in fact Sappho's actual brothers, or were fictional characters.[41] For instance, Lardinois sees Charaxos and Larichos as fictional characters, comparing them to Lycambes and his daughters, who feature in the poetry of Archilochus and are generally considered to be either fictionalised or totally fictional.[42]

Context

Sappho's poetry from the first book of the Alexandrian edition – i.e. those poems in Sapphic stanzas – appear to have been either about the family and religious or cultic practices, or about passion and love.[30] The Brothers Poem is one of those which is focused on the family.[22] The original performance context of the poem is uncertain, but most scholars consider that it was originally intended for monodic performance – that is, performance by a single singer, rather than by a chorus.[43]

The Brothers Poem seems to have been part of a series of poems about Sappho's brothers,[44] though David Gribble disagrees with this conclusion.[45] Anton Bierl identifies seven other fragments of Sappho which seem to have dealt with Charaxos or Doricha.[46] Fragments 5, 15, and 17 all, like the Brothers Poem, focus on homecomings;[16] fragments 5 and 15 are both likely to be about Charaxos,[47] and Anton Bierl suggests that fragment 17, a cultic hymn referring to Menelaus' visit to Lesbos on his way home from Troy, may be a prayer for a safe journey for Charaxos.[48] Four other surviving fragments of Sappho, 3, 7, 9, and 20, may all have been connected with the story of Charaxos and Doricha.[49]

The Brothers Poem follows shortly after fragment 5 in the edition of Sappho preserved by P. Sapph. Obbink, with probably only one column of text between them. Silvio Bär argues that the poem was deliberately positioned here because it was seen as a sort of continuation of that fragment by the editor of the Alexandrian edition of Sappho's poetry.[50] He suggests that the poem acts to correct the views put forward in fragment 5: in that poem, Sappho prays to the Nereids, not just for the safe return of her brother but that "whatever his heart desires be fulfilled";[51] in the Brothers Poem she recognises that such a broad request is out of the competence of the Nereids, and should more properly be addressed to the goddess Hera.[52]

A woman sitting on a chair on a balcony
The role of Sappho in the Brothers Poem has been compared to that of Penelope in the Odyssey; Sappho awaiting the return of her brother Charaxos just as Penelope (depicted here by Heva Coomans) waits for her husband Odysseus.

Links between Homer's Odyssey and the Brothers Poem have been observed by many scholars,[53] with Bär describing the epic as a "crucial intertext" for the Brothers Poem.[54] The relationship between the speaker, Charaxos, and Larichos in the poem parallels that of Penelope, Odysseus, and Telemachus in Homer:[55] in the Brothers Poem, the speaker awaits Charaxos' return from overseas and Larichos' coming-of-age; in the Odyssey, Penelope awaits Odysseus' return and Telemachus' coming-of-age.[56] Additionally, Anton Bierl suggests that the context of Charaxos' being away in Egypt – according to Herodotus, in love with the courtesan Rhodopis – parallels Odysseus' entrapment by Calypso and Circe.[57] A specific parallel to the Odyssean homecoming narrative is found in line 9 [13]. Sappho uses the adjective αρτεμες ("safe"), which occurs only once in the Odyssey, at 13.43, where Odysseus hopes that he will return to Ithaca to find his family safe – just as Sappho hopes in the third stanza of the Brothers Poem that Charaxos will return to Lesbos to find his family safe.[58]

Mueller suggests that the Brothers Poem is a deliberate reworking of the Homeric story, focusing on the fraternal relationship between Sappho and Charaxos in contrast to the conjugal one between Odysseus and Penelope.[15] According to Anastasia-Erasmia Peponi, this should be seen in the context of an archaic Greek tradition of domestic – and specifically sisterly – discourses.[59]

Missing stanzas

It is uncertain how much of the Brothers Poem is lost. An overlap between P. Oxy. 2289 and P. Sapph. Obbink, the apparent alphabetic arrangement of the poems of Sappho in the Alexandrian edition of her works, and the implausibility of a poem beginning with the word ἀλλά (meaning "but" or "and yet") all suggest that at least one stanza is missing from the beginning of the poem.[60] Bär has argued against this position, noting that the overlap between the Oxyrhynchus and Obbink papyri is sufficiently small (only six characters) as to not be conclusive;[61] that there are other known exceptions to the alphabetical ordering of Sappho's poems in Book I of the Alexandrian edition, and thematic reasons why the Brothers Poem might have been placed out of order to follow closely after fragment 5;[62] and that there are parallels elsewhere in Greek literature for an inceptive αλλα.[63]

Despite Bär's arguments, most authors accept that the Brother's Poem is missing at least one stanza. The exact number of stanzas missing is unknown, but it may have been as many as three.[38] Gauthier Liberman suggests that the poem was originally seven stanzas long;[64] Kurke argues that it is likely that only one stanza is missing.[65] Various suggestions have been put forward as to the content of the missing initial stanzas. Mueller suggests that the identity of the addressee of the poem may have been given in these lines.[31] Joel Lidov has proposed that the unknown addressee actually speaks in the missing stanzas.[66]

Obbink has provided a reconstruction of a single initial stanza of the Brothers Poem.[67] He argues that the mention of Larichos at the end of the poem appears suddenly, and that he was therefore probably mentioned in the missing beginning of the poem.[68] Athenaeus says that Sappho often praised Larichos for being a wine-pourer in the Prytaneion at Mytilene;[69] this wine-pouring may have been mentioned here.[70] Obbink also suggests that the opening of the poem originally contained a mention of the death of Sappho's father when she was young, which was the source of Ovid's anecdote at Heroides 15.61–62.[68] Kurke has argued that the missing stanza discussed Charaxos, giving the complete poem a symmetry of three stanzas discussing each of the brothers.[65]

Reception

The announcement of the discovery of the Brothers Poem, along with fragments of eight other poems – the largest discovery of new material by Sappho in almost a century[71] – was the subject of significant media attention.[26] James Romm, writing in The Daily Beast, called it "a spectacular literary discovery",[8] and Tom Payne in The Daily Telegraph said that it was "more exciting than a new album by David Bowie".[72] Other commentators expressed concern about the provenance of the papyrus, with Douglas Boin in The New York Times criticising the failure to properly discuss the papyrus' provenance as "disturbingly tone deaf to the legal and ethical issues".[73]

Though classicists were excited by the discovery of the poem, considering it the "most spectacular" of the 2014 finds,[1] it was not considered one of Sappho's best works. Martin West originally considered the work to be "very poor stuff" and "frigid juvenilia", though he later toned down his criticism of the poem.[74] Liberman wrote that the poem is clumsy, displaying signs of hasty composition.[75] Richard Rawles suggested that part of the reason that the poem was initially considered disappointing was because it was not about sexuality or eroticism – a factor which he predicted would make the fragment of greater interest in the future.[76] Some commentators have been more positive. Though Loukas Papadimitropoulos said that his initial impression of the poem was that it was simplistic, he concluded that the meaning of the poem was "perhaps the most profound in all of Sappho's extant work",[77] and that the poem turns the "simple[...] into something highly significant".[78]

Despite scholars' initial disappointment over the quality of the poem, it is considered valuable for the historical and biographical information it contains.[64] It is the first fragment of Sappho discovered to mention the names "Charaxos" and "Larichos", both described as brothers of Sappho by ancient sources but not in any of her previously known writings.[8] Before the poem was found, scholars had doubted that Sappho ever mentioned Charaxos.[4]

Notes

  1. ↑ Fragments 16a, 18a, and the Brothers Poem. The other poems overlapped with the already known fragments 5, 9, 16, 17, 18, and 26.[1]
  2. ↑ The standard Alexandrian edition of Sappho's poetry was divided into nine books on the basis of their metre; Book I contained those poems composed in Sapphic Stanzas.[2]
  3. ↑ Cartonnage was often used for making mummy cases, and it was initially believed that the Brothers Poem fragment was from such material. However, the lack of gesso and paint traces suggest that it was in fact domestic or industrial cartonnage.[6]
  4. ↑ Neri's list includes: Scamondronymus, Sappho's father; Cleïs, her mother; Larichos; Erigyius, a third brother known from the testimonia but not mentioned in the Brothers Poem; Sappho's daughter, also called Cleïs; another family member or acquaintance; a slave or nurse; Charaxos' lover Doricha/Rhodopis; Charaxos' wife or fiancée on Lesbos; the speaker's companion or companions; and Sappho herself.[33]
  5. ↑ Other sources, including Strabo and Athenaeus, call Charaxos' lover Doricha; it is unclear whether these are two names for the same person, or whether they were different people whom Herodotus confused.[34]

References

  1. 1 2 3 Bierl & Lardinois 2016, p. 1.
  2. ↑ de Kreij 2016, pp. 65–6.
  3. ↑ Obbink 2015, p. 1.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 Obbink 2014, p. 32.
  5. 1 2 Lardinois 2016, p. 168.
  6. ↑ Obbink 2015, pp. 2–3.
  7. ↑ Obbink 2015, pp. 1; 3.
  8. 1 2 3 Romm 2014.
  9. ↑ Obbink 2015, p. 2.
  10. ↑ Obbink 2015, pp. 1–2.
  11. ↑ Obbink 2014, p. 32, n. 2.
  12. ↑ Obbink 2015, p. 4.
  13. ↑ Whitmarsh 2014.
  14. ↑ Rayor & Lardinois 2014, p. 160.
  15. 1 2 Mueller 2016, p. 28.
  16. 1 2 Mueller 2016, p. 42.
  17. ↑ Obbink 2014, p. 33.
  18. ↑ Lardinois 2016, pp. 168–9.
  19. ↑ Mueller 2016, p. 38.
  20. ↑ Swift 2014.
  21. ↑ Sappho, Brothers Poem, l.17. trans. Rayor & Lardinois 2014, p. 160
  22. 1 2 Obbink 2014, p. 35.
  23. ↑ Bär 2016, p. 10.
  24. ↑ Bär 2016, p. 13.
  25. 1 2 Lardinois 2016, p. 181.
  26. 1 2 Mueller 2016, p. 26.
  27. ↑ Bär 2016, p. 9.
  28. ↑ Bär 2016, pp. 14–5.
  29. ↑ Stehle 2016, p. 267.
  30. 1 2 Obbink 2014, p. 34.
  31. 1 2 3 Mueller 2016, p. 31.
  32. ↑ Stehle 2016, p. 271.
  33. ↑ Neri 2015, pp. 58–9.
  34. ↑ Bär 2016, n. 16.
  35. ↑ Obbink 2015, p. 7.
  36. 1 2 Lardinois 2016, p. 182.
  37. ↑ Bierl 2016, pp. 329–30.
  38. 1 2 Kurke 2016, p. 239.
  39. ↑ Kurke 2016, pp. 244–5.
  40. ↑ Bär 2016, pp. 10–11.
  41. ↑ Boedecker 2016, p. 188.
  42. ↑ Lardinois 2016, pp. 184–5.
  43. ↑ Bierl 2016, p. 335.
  44. ↑ Stehle 2016, p. 266.
  45. ↑ Gribble 2016, p. 67.
  46. ↑ Bierl 2016, pp. 323–4.
  47. ↑ Lardinois 2016, pp. 171–2; 181.
  48. ↑ Bierl 2016, p. 324.
  49. ↑ Lardinois 2016, p. 172.
  50. ↑ Bär 2016, p. 18.
  51. ↑ Sappho, 5.3–4. trans. Rayor & Lardinois 2014, p. 30
  52. ↑ Bär 2016, pp. 19–20.
  53. ↑ Kurke 2016, p. 249.
  54. ↑ Bär 2016, p. 16.
  55. ↑ Mueller 2016, pp. 27–8.
  56. ↑ Bär 2016, p. 23.
  57. ↑ Bierl 2016, p. 310.
  58. ↑ Bär 2016, pp. 24–5.
  59. ↑ Peponi 2016, p. 234.
  60. ↑ Bär 2016, pp. 28–30.
  61. ↑ Bär 2016, p. 28.
  62. ↑ Bär 2016, pp. 28–9.
  63. ↑ Bär 2016, p. 30.
  64. 1 2 Liberman 2014, p. 1.
  65. 1 2 Kurke 2016, p. 241.
  66. ↑ Obbink 2016, p. 217, n. 33.
  67. ↑ Obbink 2016, p. 223.
  68. 1 2 Obbink 2016, p. 219.
  69. ↑ Athenaeus 10.425a
  70. ↑ Obbink 2016, pp. 220–1.
  71. ↑ Childers 2016, p. 26.
  72. ↑ Payne 2014.
  73. ↑ Boin 2014.
  74. ↑ Mueller 2016, p. 27.
  75. ↑ Liberman 2014, pp. 7–8.
  76. ↑ Rawles 2014.
  77. ↑ Papadimitropoulos 2016, p. 3.
  78. ↑ Papadimitropoulos 2016, p. 6.

Works cited

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