Aisha

Aisha
Mother of the Believers
Native name (Arabic): عائشة
Born ‘Ā’ishah bint Abī Bakr
c. 613/614 CE
Mecca, Hejaz, Arabia
(present-day Saudi Arabia)
Died 13 July 678 / 17 Ramadan 58 AH (aged 64)
Medina, Hejaz, Arabia
(present-day Saudi Arabia)
Resting place Jannat al-Baqi, Medina, Hejaz, Arabia
(present-day Saudi Arabia)
Spouse(s) Muhammad
(m. 620 - 8 June 632)
Parent(s) Abu Bakr (father)
Umm Ruman (mother)
Military career
Battles/wars

First Fitna

‘Ā’ishah bint Abī Bakr (613/614 – 678 CE;[1]Arabic: عائشة بنت أبي بكر‎ or عائشة, transliteration: ‘Ā’ishah [ʕaːʔɪʃa], also transcribed as A'ishah, Aisyah, Ayesha, A'isha, Aishat, Aishah, or Aisha /ˈɑːiːʃɑː/)[2] was one of Muhammad's wives.[3] In Islamic writings, her name is thus often prefixed by the title "Mother of the Believers" (Arabic: أمّ المؤمنين umm al-mu'minīn), per the description of Muhammad's wives in the Qur'an.[4][5][6]

Aisha had an important role in early Islamic history, both during Muhammad's life and after his death. In Sunni tradition, Aisha is portrayed as scholarly and inquisitive. She contributed to the spread of Muhammad's message and served the Muslim community for 44 years after his death.[7] She is also known for narrating 2210 hadiths,[8] not just on matters related to Muhammad's private life, but also on topics such as inheritance, pilgrimage, and eschatology.[9] Her intellect and knowledge in various subjects, including poetry and medicine, were highly praised by early luminaries such as al-Zuhri and her student Urwa ibn al-Zubayr.[9]

Her father, Abu Bakr, became the first caliph to succeed Muhammad, and after two years was succeeded by Umar. During the time of the third caliph Uthman, Aisha had a leading part in the opposition that grew against him, though she did not agree either with those responsible for his assassination nor with the party of Ali.[10] During the reign of Ali, she wanted to avenge Uthman's death, which she attempted to do in the Battle of the Camel. She participated in the battle by giving speeches and leading troops on the back of her camel. She ended up losing the battle, but her involvement and determination left a lasting impression.[6] Afterwards, she lived quietly in Medina for more than twenty years, took no part in politics, became reconciled to Ali and did not oppose caliph Mu'awiya.[10]

The majority of traditional hadith sources state that Aisha was married to Muhammad at the age of six or seven, but she stayed in her parents' home until the age of nine, or ten according to Ibn Hisham,[11] when the marriage was consummated with Muhammad, then 53, in Medina.[12][13][14] This timeline has been challenged by a number of scholars in modern times.

The Shia have a generally negative view of Aisha. They accuse her of hating Ali and defying him during his caliphate in the Battle of the Camel, when she fought men from Ali's army in Basra.

Early life

Aisha was born in late 613 or early 614.[15][16] She was the daughter of Umm Ruman and Abu Bakr of Mecca, two of Muhammad's most trusted companions.[17] Aisha was the third and youngest wife of Muhammad.[17] No sources offer much more information about Aisha's childhood years.[18][19]

Marriage to Muhammad

The idea to match Aisha with Muhammad was suggested by Khawlah bint Hakim.[20][21] After this, the previous agreement regarding the marriage of Aisha with Jubayr ibn Mut'im was put aside by common consent. Abu Bakr was uncertain at first "as to the propriety or even legality of marrying his daughter to his 'brother'."[21] British historian William Montgomery Watt suggests that Muhammad hoped to strengthen his ties with Abu Bakr;[10] the strengthening of ties commonly served as a basis for marriage in Arabian culture.[22]

Age at marriage

Aisha's age at the time of her marriage is frequently mentioned in Islamic literature.[11] According to Sunni hadith sources, Aisha was six or seven years old when she was married to Muhammad in Mecca. The marriage was consummated after the Hegira to Medina, when she had reached the age of nine or ten years old.[23] Many scholars interpret this to indicate that she reached puberty at this age.[10][11][12][13][14][24][25][26] For example, Sahih al-Bukhari states that Aisha narrated that "the Prophet married her when she was six years old and he consummated his marriage when she was nine years old, and then she remained with him for nine years (i.e., till his death)."[27][23] Some narrations such as the following mention her menstruating:[28] "Narrated 'Aisha: The Prophet used to lean on my lap and recite Qur'an while I was in menses."[29] and "Narrated 'Aisha: The Prophet used to embrace me during my menses. He also used to put his head out of the mosque while he was in Itikaf, and I would wash it during my menses."[30]

In the modern era, Aisha's age at marriage has been a source of controversy and debate, and some Muslims have attempted to revise the previously-accepted timeline of her life.[31] All biographical information on Muhammad and his companions was first recorded over a century after his death,[32] but the ahadith and Islamic literature provide records of early Islam through an unbroken chain of witnesses. Various ahadith stating that Aisha was either nine or ten at the time of her consummation come from collections with sahih status, meaning they are regarded as reputable by the majority of Muslims.[33][34] Some other traditional sources also mention Aisha's age. The sira of Ibn Ishaq edited by Ibn Hisham states that she was nine or ten years old at the consummation.[35] The historian al-Tabari also states that she was nine.[36]

Marriage at a young age was not unheard of at the time, and Aisha's marriage to Muhammad may have had a political connotation, as her father Abu Bakr was an influential man in the community.[37] Abu Bakr, on his part, may have sought to further the bond of kinship between Muhammad and himself by joining their families together in marriage via Aisha. Leila Ahmed notes that Aisha's betrothal and marriage to Muhammad are presented as ordinary in Islamic literature, and may indicate that it was not unusual for children to be married to their elders in that era.[38]

Some Muslim authors have attempted to calculate Aisha's age based on details found in some biographies, eschewing the traditionally-accepted ahadith, though Kecia Ali labels these attempts as "revisionist".[31] One hadith recorded in the works of some medieval scholars, including al-Dhahabi,[39] states that Aisha's older sister Asma was ten years older than her. This has been combined with information about Asma's age at the time of her death and used to suggest that Aisha was over thirteen at the time of her marriage.[40] Gibril Haddad criticizes this approach as relying on a single narrator, and notes that a hadith from the same narrator gives a broader range for the age difference between the sisters.[41] Muhammad Niknam Arabshahi, an Iranian Islamic scholar, has considered six different approaches to determining Aisha's age and concluded that she was engaged in her late teens.[42] Using reports on the birth year of Fatimah as a reference point, the Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement scholar Muhammad Ali has estimated that Aisha was over ten years old at the time of marriage and over fifteen at the time of its consummation.[43]

Noting the references to Aisha's age as either nine or ten at the age of consummation, American historian Denise Spellberg states that "these specific references to the bride's age reinforce Aisha's pre-menarcheal status and, implicitly, her virginity".[11] She notes that Aisha herself seemed to promote the fact that she was a virgin prior to her marriage to Muhammad, as a way to distinguish herself from his other, non-virginal wives. This was of great importance to those who supported Aisha's position in the debate of the succession to Muhammad. These supporters considered that as Muhammad's only virgin wife, Aisha was divinely intended for him, and therefore the most credible regarding the debate.[44] The Islamic scholar Kecia Ali disagrees with Spellberg's assessment, and states that early Islamic literature does not present Aisha’s young age as noteworthy or exceptional. She notes that some of Mohammed's companions are reported to have engaged in marriages with a similar age gap, and that the marriage would likely not have seemed controversial at the time.[31]

Personal life

Relationship with Muhammad

Muhammad and Aisha freeing the daughter of a tribal chief

In many Muslim traditions, Aisha is described as Muhammad's most beloved or favored wife after his first wife, Khadija bint Khuwaylid, who died before the migration to Medina took place.[45][46][47][48][49] There are several hadiths, or stories or sayings of Muhammad, that support this belief. One relates that when a companion asked Muhammad, "who is the person you love most in the world?" he responded, "Aisha."[50] Others relate that Muhammad built Aisha’s apartment so that her door opened directly into the mosque,[51][52] and that she was the only woman with whom Muhammad received revelations.[53][54] They bathed in the same water and he prayed while she lay stretched out in front of him.[55]

There are also various traditions that reveal the mutual affection between Muhammad and Aisha. He would often just sit and watch her and her friends play with dolls, and on occasion he would even join them.[56][57][58] Additionally, they were close enough that each was able to discern the mood of the other, as many stories relate.[59][60] It is also important to note that there exists evidence that Muhammad did not view himself as entirely superior to Aisha, at least not enough to prevent Aisha from speaking her mind, even at the risk of angering Muhammad. On one such instance, Muhammad's "announcement of a revelation permitting him to enter into marriages disallowed to other men drew from her [Aisha] the retort, 'It seems to me your Lord hastens to satisfy your desire!'"[61] Furthermore, Muhammad and Aisha had a strong intellectual relationship.[62] Muhammad valued her keen memory and intelligence and so instructed his companions to draw some of their religious practices from her.[63][64]

Accusation of adultery

The story of accusation of adultery levied against Aisha can be traced to sura (chapter) An-Nur of the Qur'an. As the story goes, Aisha left her howdah in order to search for a missing necklace. Her slaves mounted the howdah and prepared it for travel without noticing any difference in weight without Aisha's presence. Hence the caravan accidentally departed without her. She remained at the camp until the next morning, when Safwan ibn al-Mu‘attal, a nomad and member of Muhammad's army, found her and brought her back to Muhammad at the army's next camp. Rumours that Aisha and Safwan had committed adultery were spread, particularly by Abd-Allah ibn Ubayy, Hassan ibn Thabit, Mistah ibn Uthatha and Hammanah bint Jahsh (sister of Zaynab bint Jahsh, another of Muhammad's wives). Usama ibn Zayd, son of Zayd ibn Harithah, defended Aisha's reputation; while Ali ibn Abi Talib advised "Women are plentiful, and you can easily change one for another." Muhammad came to speak directly with Aisha about the rumours. He was still sitting in her house when he announced that he had received a revelation from God confirming Aisha's innocence. Surah 24 details the Islamic laws and punishment regarding adultery and slander. Aisha's accusers were subjected to punishments of 80 lashes.[65]

Story of the honey

After the daily Asr prayer, Muhammad would visit each of his wives' apartments to inquire about their well-being. Muhammad was just in the amount of time he spent with them and attention he gave to them.[66] Once, Muhammad's fifth wife, Zaynab bint Jahsh, received some honey from a relative which Muhammad took a particular liking to. As a result, every time Zaynab offered some of this honey to him he would spend a longer time in her apartment. This did not sit well with Aisha and Hafsa bint Umar.

Hafsa and I decided that when the Prophet entered upon either of us, she would say, "I smell in you the bad smell of Maghafir (a bad smelling raisin). Have you eaten Maghafir?" When he entered upon one of us, she said that to him. He replied (to her), "No, but I have drunk honey in the house of Zainab bint Jahsh, and I will never drink it again."..."But I have drunk honey." Hisham said: It also meant his saying, "I will not drink anymore, and I have taken an oath, so do not inform anybody of that'

— Muhammad al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari[67]

Soon after this event, Muhammad reported that he had received a revelation in which he was told that he could eat anything permitted by God. Some Sunni commentators on the Qur'an sometimes give this story as the "occasion of revelation" for At-Tahrim, which opens with the following verses:

O Prophet! Why holdest thou to be forbidden that which Allah has made lawful to thee? Thou seekest to please thy consorts. But Allah is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful.
Allah has already ordained for you, (O men), the dissolution of your oaths (in some cases): and Allah is your Protector, and He is Full of Knowledge and Wisdom.

— Qur'an, surah 66 (At-Tahrim), ayat 1–2[68]

Word spread to the small Muslim community that Muhammad's wives were speaking sharply to him and conspiring against him. Muhammad, saddened and upset, separated from his wives for a month. ‘Umar, Hafsa's father, scolded his daughter and also spoke to Muhammad of the matter. By the end of this time, his wives were humbled; they agreed to "speak correct and courteous words"[69] and to focus on the afterlife.[70]

Death of Muhammad

Aisha remained Muhammad's favorite wife throughout his life. When he became ill and suspected that he was probably going to die, he began to ask his wives whose apartment he was to stay in next. They eventually figured out that he was trying to determine when he was due with Aisha, and they then allowed him to retire there. He remained in Aisha's apartment until his death, and his last breath was taken as he lay in the arms of Aisha, his most beloved wife.[71][72][73][74][75]

Political career

After Muhammad's death, which ended Aisha and Muhammad's 14-year-long marriage, Aisha lived fifty more years in and around Medina. Much of her time was spent learning and acquiring knowledge of the Quran and the sunnah of Muhammad. Aisha was one of three wives (the other two being Hafsa bint Umar and Umm Salama) who memorized the Qur'an. Like Hafsa, Aisha had her own script of the Quran written after Muhammad's death.[76] During Aisha's life many prominent customs of Islam, such as veiling and seclusion of women, began.

Aisha's importance to revitalizing the Arab tradition and leadership among the Arab women highlights her magnitude within Islam.[77] Aisha became involved in the politics of early Islam and the first three caliphate reigns: Abu Bakr, ‘Umar, and ‘Uthman. During a time in Islam when women were not expected, or wanted, to contribute outside the household, Aisha delivered public speeches, became directly involved in war and even battles, and helped both men and women to understand the practices of Muhammad.[45]

Role during caliphate

Role during first and second caliphates

After Muhammad's death in 632, Abu Bakr was appointed as the first caliph. This matter of succession to Muhammad is extremely controversial to the Shia who believe that Ali had been appointed by Muhammad to lead while Sunni maintain that the public elected Abu Bakr.[78] Abu Bakr had two advantages in achieving his new role: his long personal friendship with Muhammad and his role as father-in-law. As caliph, Abu Bakr was the first to set guidelines for the new position of authority.[79]

Aisha garnered more special privilege in the Islamic community for being known as both a wife of Muhammad and the daughter of the first caliph. Being the daughter of Abu Bakr tied Aisha to honorable titles earned from her father's strong dedication to Islam. For example, she was given the title of al-siddiqa bint al-siddiq, meaning 'the truthful woman, daughter of the truthful man',[11] a reference to Abu Bakr's support of the Isra and Mi'raj.[80]

In 634 Abu Bakr fell sick and was unable to recover. Prior to his death, he appointed ‘Umar, one of his chief advisers, as the second caliph.[11] Throughout ‘Umar's time in power Aisha continued to play the role of a consultant in political matters.[11]

Role during the third caliphate

After ‘Umar died, ‘Uthmān was chosen to be the third caliph. He wanted to promote the interests of the Umayyads. Aisha had little involvement with ‘Uthmān for the first couple years, but eventually she found a way into the politics of his reign. She eventually grew to despise ‘Uthmān, and many are unsure of what specifically triggered her eventual opposition towards him. A prominent opposition that arose towards him was when ‘Uthmān mistreated ‘Ammar ibn Yasir (companion of Muhammad) by beating him. Aisha became enraged and spoke out publicly, saying, "How soon indeed you have forgotten the practice (sunnah) of your prophet and these, his hairs, a shirt, and sandal have not yet perished!".[81]

As time continued issues of antipathy towards ‘Uthmān continued to arise. Another instance of opposition arose when the people came to Aisha, after Uthmān ignored the rightful punishment for Walid idn Uqbah (Uthmān's brother). Aisha and Uthmān argued with each other, Uthmān eventually made a comment on why Aisha had come and how she was "ordered to stay at home".[82] Arising from this comment, was the question of whether Aisha, and for that matter women, still had the ability to be involved in public affairs. The Muslim community became split: "some sided with Uthmān, but others demanded to know who indeed had better right than Aisha in such matters".[82]

The caliphate took a turn for the worse when Egypt was governed by Abdullah ibn Saad. Abbott reports that Muhammad ibn Abi Hudhayfa of Egypt, an opponent of ‘Uthmān, forged letters in the Mothers of the Believers' names to the conspirators against ‘Uthmān. The people cut off ‘Uthmān's water and food supply. When Aisha realized the behavior of the crowd, Abbott notes, Aisha could not believe the crowd "would offer such indignities to a widow of Mohammad".[83] This refers to when Safiyya bint Huyayy (one of Muhammad's wives) tried to help ‘Uthmān and was taken by the crowd. Malik al-Ashtar then approached her about killing Uthmān and the letter, and she claimed she would never want to "command the shedding of the blood of the Muslims and the killing of their Imām";[83] she also claimed she did not write the letters.[84] The city continued to oppose ‘Uthmān, but as for Aisha, her journey to Mecca was approaching. With the journey to Mecca approaching at this time, she wanted to rid herself of the situation. ‘Uthmān heard of her not wanting to hurt him, and he asked her to stay because of her influence on the people, but this did not persuade Aisha, and she continued on her journey.[6]

First Fitna

Domains of Rashidun Caliphate under four caliphs. The divided phase relates to the Rashidun Caliphate of Ali during the First Fitna.
  Strongholds of the Rashidun Caliphate of Ali during the First Fitna
  Region under the control of Muawiyah I during the First Fitna
  Region under the control of Amr ibn al-As during the First Fitna

In 655, Uthman's house was put under siege by about 1000 rebels. Eventually the rebels broke into the house and murdered Uthman, provoking the First Fitna.[85] After killing Uthman, the rebels asked Ali to be the new caliph, although Ali was not involved in the murder of Uthman according to many reports.[86][87] Ali reportedly initially refused the caliphate, agreeing to rule only after his followers persisted.

When Ali could not execute those merely accused of Uthman's murder, Aisha delivered a fiery speech against him for not avenging the death of Uthman. The first to respond to Aisha was Abdullah ibn Aamar al-Hadhrami, the governor of Mecca during the reign of Uthman, and prominent members of the Banu Umayya. With the funds from the "Yemeni Treasury" Aisha set out on a campaign against the Rashidun Caliphate of Ali.

Aisha, along with an army including Zubayr ibn al-Awam and Talha ibn Ubayd-Allah, confronted Ali's army, demanding the prosecution of Uthman's killers who had mingled with his army outside the city of Basra. When her forces captured Basra she ordered the execution of 600 Muslims and 40 others, including Hakim ibn Jabala, who were put to death in the Grand Mosque of Basra.[88][89][90] Aisha's forces are also known to have tortured and imprisoned Othman ibn Hanif the governor of Basra appointed by Ali.[91]

Aisha battling the fourth caliph Ali in the Battle of the Camel

Ali rallied supporters and fought Aisha's forces near Basra in 656. The battle is known as the Battle of the Camel, after the fact that Aisha directed her forces from a howdah on the back of a large camel. Aisha's forces were defeated and an estimated 10,000 Muslims were killed in the battle,[92] considered the first engagement where Muslims fought Muslims.[93]

After 110 days of conflict the Rashidun Caliph Ali ibn Abi Talib met Aisha with reconciliation. He sent her back to Medina under military escort headed by her brother Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, one of Ali's commanders. She subsequently retired to Medina with no more interference with the affairs of state. She was also awarded a pension by Ali.[94]

Although she retired to Medina, her forsaken efforts against the Rashidun Caliphate of Ali did not end the First Fitna.[95]

Contributions to Islam and influence

After 25 years of a monogamous relationship with his first wife, Khadija bint Khuwaylid, Muhammad participated in nine years of polygyny, marrying at least nine further wives. Muhammad's subsequent marriages were depicted purely as political matches rather than unions of sexual indulgence. In particular, Muhammad's unions with Aisha and Hafsa bint Umar associated him with two of the most significant leaders of the early Muslim community, Aisha's and Hafsa's fathers, Abu Bakr and ‘Umar ibn al-Khattāb, respectively.[96]

Aisha's marriage has given her significance among many within Islamic culture, becoming known as the most learned woman of her time. Being Muhammad's favorite wife, Aisha occupied an important position in his life.[77] When Muhammad married Aisha in her youth, she was accessible "...to the values needed to lead and influence the sisterhood of Muslim women."[97] After the death of Muhammad, Aisha was discovered to be a renowned source of hadiths, due to her qualities of intelligence and memory.[77] Aisha conveyed ideas expressing Muhammad's practice (sunnah). She expressed herself as a role model to women, which can also be seen within some traditions attributed to her. The traditions regarding Aisha habitually opposed ideas unfavorable to women in efforts to elicit social change.[98]

According to Reza Aslan:[99]

The so-called Muslim women’s movement is predicated on the idea that Muslim men, not Islam, have been responsible for the suppression of women’s rights. For this reason, Muslim feminists throughout the world are advocating a return to the society Muhammad originally envisioned for his followers. Despite differences in culture, nationalities, and beliefs, these women believe that the lesson to be learned from Muhammad in Medina is that Islam is above all an egalitarian religion. Their Medina is a society in which Muhammad designated women like Umm Waraqa as spiritual guides for the Ummah; in which the Prophet himself was sometimes publicly rebuked by his wives; in which women prayed and fought alongside the men; in which women like Aisha and Umm Salamah acted not only as religious but also as political—and on at least one occasion military—leaders; and in which the call to gather for prayer, bellowed from the rooftop of Muhammad’s house, brought men and women together to kneel side by side and be blessed as a single undivided community.

Not only was Aisha supportive of Muhammad, but she contributed scholarly intellect to the development of Islam.[97] She was given the title al-Siddiqah, meaning 'the one who affirms the truth'. Aisha was known for her "...expertise in the Quran, shares of inheritance, lawful and unlawful matters, poetry, Arabic literature, Arab history, genealogy, and general medicine."[97] Her intellectual contributions regarding the verbal texts of Islam were in time transcribed into written form, becoming the official history of Islam.[100] After the death of Muhammad, Aisha was regarded as the most reliable source in the teachings of hadith.[97] Aisha's authentication of Muhammad's ways of prayer and his recitation of the Qur'an allowed for development of knowledge of his sunnah of praying and reading verses of the Quran.[45]

During Aisha's entire life she was a strong advocate for the education of Islamic women, especially in law and the teachings of Islam. She was known for establishing the first madrasa for women in her home.[97] Attending Aisha's classes were various family relatives and orphaned children. Men also attended Aisha's classes, with a simple curtain separating the male and female students.[97]

Political influence

Some say that Aisha's political influence helped promote her father, Abu Bakr, to the caliphate after Muhammad's death.[3]

After the defeat at the Battle of the Camel, Aisha retreated to Medina and became a teacher.[3] Upon her arrival in Medina, Aisha retired from her public role in politics. Her discontinuation of public politics, however, did not stop her political influence completely. Privately, Aisha continued influencing those intertwined in the Islamic political sphere. Amongst the Islamic community, she was known as an intelligent woman who debated law with male companions.[101] Aisha was also considered to be the embodiment of proper rituals while partaking in the pilgrimage to Mecca, a journey she made with several groups of women. For the last two years of her life, Aisha spent much of her time telling the stories of Muhammad, hoping to correct false passages that had become influential in formulating Islamic law. Due to this, Aisha's political influence continues to impact those in Islam.[3]

Death

Aisha died at her home in Medina on 17 Ramadan 58 AH (16 July 678).[lower-alpha 1] She was 67 years old.[1] Some such as Sibt ibn al-Jawzi,[103] Hakim Sanai,[104] and Khwaja Mehboob Qasim Chishti Muhsarafee Qadiri[105] say that she was murdered by Muawiyah. Muhammad's companion Abu Hurairah led her funeral prayer after the tahajjud (night) prayer, and she was buried at Jannat al-Baqi‘.[106]

Views

Sunni view of Aisha

Sunnis believe she was Muhammad's favorite wife. They consider her (among other wives) to be Umm al-Mu’minin and among the members of the Ahl al-Bayt, or Muhammad's family. According to Sunni hadith reports, Muhammad saw Aisha in two dreams[107][108] in which he was shown that he would marry her.[109][110]

Shia view of Aisha

The Shia view Aisha negatively. They accuse her of hating Ali and defying him during his caliphate in the Battle of the Camel, when she fought men from Ali's army in Basra.[111]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ This is the generally accepted date, although the actual date of death is not known for certain.[102]

Citations

  1. 1 2 Al-Nasa'i 1997, p. 108
    ‘A’isha was eighteen years of age at the time when the Holy Prophet (peace and blessings of Allah be upon him) died and she remained a widow for forty-eight years till she died at the age of sixty-seven. She saw the rules of four caliphs in her lifetime. She died in Ramadan 58 AH during the caliphate of Mu‘awiya...
  2. ↑ "Aisha". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary.
  3. 1 2 3 4 Spellberg 1994, p. 3
  4. ↑ Quran 33:6
  5. ↑ Brockelmann 1947
  6. 1 2 3 Abbott 1942
  7. ↑ Aleem, Shamim (2007). Prophet Muhammad(s) and His Family: A Sociological Perspective. AuthorHouse. p. 130. ISBN 9781434323576.
  8. ↑ Islamyat: a core text for students
  9. 1 2 Sayeed, Asma (2013-08-06). Women and the Transmission of Religious Knowledge in Islam. Cambridge University Press. pp. 27–9. ISBN 9781107031586.
  10. 1 2 3 4 Watt 1960
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Spellberg 1994, pp. 39–40
  12. 1 2 Armstrong 1992, p. 157
  13. 1 2 Sahih al-Bukhari, 5:58:234, 5:58:236, 7:62:64, 7:62:65, 7:62:88, Sahih Muslim, 8:3309, 8:3310, 8:3311, 41:4915, Sunan Abu Dawood, 41:4917
  14. 1 2 al-Tabari 1987, p. 7, al-Tabari 1990, p. 131
  15. ↑ Abbott 1942, p. 1
  16. ↑ Ibn Sa'd 1995, p. 55
    Aisha was born at the beginning of the fourth year of prophethood
    i.e., the year 613–614
  17. 1 2 Esposito
  18. ↑ Watt 1961, p. 102
  19. ↑ Abbott 1942, p. 7
  20. ↑ Ahmed 1992
  21. 1 2 Abbott 1942, p. 3
  22. ↑ Sonbol 2003, pp. 3–9
  23. 1 2 "A'ishah - Oxford Islamic Studies Online". www.oxfordislamicstudies.com. Retrieved 2018-09-04.
  24. ↑ Barlas 2002, pp. 125–126
  25. ↑ A.C. Brown, Jonathan (2014). Misquoting Muhammad: The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy. Oneworld Publications. pp. 143–4. ISBN 978-1780744209.
  26. ↑ A.C. Brown, Jonathan (2014). Misquoting Muhammad: The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy. Oneworld Publications. p. 316. n° 50. ISBN 978-1780744209. Evidence that the Prophet waited for Aisha to reach physical maturity before consummation comes from al-Ṭabarī, who says she was too young for intercourse at the time of the marriage contract;
  27. ↑ Sahih al-Bukhari, 7:62:64
  28. ↑ al-Nawawī, Yahya. Al Minhaj bi Sharh Sahih Muslim.
  29. ↑ Sahih al-Bukhari, 1:6:296
  30. ↑ Sahih al-Bukhari, 3:33:247
  31. 1 2 3 Ali, Kecia. Sexual Ethics and Islam: Feminist Reflections on Qur'an, Hadith and Jurisprudence. OneWorld. p. 173-186. ISBN 978-1780743813.
  32. ↑ Kadri, Sadakat (2012). Heaven on Earth. Farrar, Straus, Giroux. p. 30.
  33. ↑ Sahih al-Bukhari, 7:62:64
  34. ↑ Sahih Muslim 8:3309
  35. ↑ Ibn Ishaq. The Life of Muhammad. Translated by A. Guillaume. p. 792. He married A'isha in Mecca when she was a child of seven and lived with her in Medina when she was nine or ten.
  36. ↑ al-Tabari, Abu Jafar. History of al-Tabari, Vol 6: Muhammad at Mecca. Translated by Ismail K Poonawala. p. 131.
  37. ↑ Afsaruddin 2014
  38. ↑ Ahmed, Leila (1992). Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate. Yale University Press. p. 51-54. ISBN 978-0300055832.
  39. ↑ al-Dhahabi. "Siyar a`lam al-nubala'". IslamWeb. Retrieved 3 September 2018. قال عبد الرحمن بن أبي الزناد : كانت أسماء أكبر من عائشة بعشر . (Abd al-Rahman ibn Abi al-Zunad said: Asma was older than Aisha by ten years
  40. ↑ Barlas, Asma (2012). "Believing Women" in Islam: Unreading Patriarchal Interpretations of the Qur'an. University of Texas Press. p. 126. On the other hand, however, Muslims who calculate 'Ayesha's age based on details of her sister Asma's age, about whom more is known, as well as on details of the Hijra (the Prophet's migration from Mecca to Madina), maintain that she was over thirteen and perhaps between seventeen and nineteen when she got married. Such views cohere with those Ahadith that claim that at her marriage Ayesha had "good knowledge of Ancient Arabic poetry and genealogy" and "pronounced the fundamental rules of Arabic Islamic ethics.
  41. ↑ Gibril F Haddad. "Our Mother A'isha's Age At The Time Of Her Marriage to The Prophet". SunniPath. Retrieved 3 September 2018.
  42. ↑ Tarikh Sahih Islam et al.
    According to these sources, we can conclude that Aisha was much older than what she claimed and narrated in some hadith... and she was 17 or 19 years old when she got engaged and she would be 20 or 22 when she had sex. (Original: از اين روايات می توان چنين نتيجه گرفت که عايشه بسيار بزرگتر از آن چيزی است که خودش ادعا می کند و در روايت ها نقل شده است؛...و در هنگام ازدواج 17 يا 19 ساله و در هنگام دخول 20 يا 22 ساله خواهد بود)
  43. ↑ Ali 1997, p. 150
  44. ↑ Spellberg 1994, pp. 34–40
  45. 1 2 3 Ahmed 1992, p. 51
  46. ↑ Roded 1994, p. 36
  47. ↑ Roded 2008, p. 23
  48. ↑ Joseph 2007, p. 227
  49. ↑ McAuliffe 2001, p. 55
  50. ↑ Mernissi 1988, p. 65
  51. ↑ Mernissi 1988, p. 107
  52. ↑ Abbott 1942, p. 25
  53. ↑ Roded 1994, p. 28
  54. ↑ Abbott 1942, p. 46
  55. ↑ Shaikh 2003, p. 33
  56. ↑ Abbott 1942, p. 8
  57. ↑ Lings 1983, pp. 133–134
  58. ↑ Haykal 1976, pp. 183–184
  59. ↑ Abbott 1942, pp. 67–68
  60. ↑ Lings 1983, p. 371
  61. ↑ Ahmed 1992, pp. 51–52
  62. ↑ Mernissi 1988, p. 104
  63. ↑ Mernissi 1988, p. 78
  64. ↑ Ramadan 2007, p. 121
  65. ↑ The story is told multiple times in the early traditions, nearly all of the versions being ultimately derived from Aisha's own account. Typical examples can be found in Sahih al-Bukhari, 5:59:462, Sahih Muslim, 37:6673 and Guillaume 1955, pp. 494–499.
  66. ↑ Great Women of Islam – Zaynab bint Jahsh
  67. ↑ Sahih al-Bukhari, 8:78:682
  68. ↑ Quran 66:1–2
  69. ↑ Ibn Sa'd 1995, pp. 132–133
  70. ↑ Sahih al-Bukhari, 3:43:648
  71. ↑ Ahmed 1992, p. 58
  72. ↑ Abbott 1942, p. 69
  73. ↑ Lings 1983, p. 339
  74. ↑ Haykal 1976, pp. 502–503
  75. ↑ Guillaume 1955, p. 679 and 682
  76. ↑ "Aishah bint Abu Bakr". Jannah.org. Retrieved 2013-12-31.
  77. 1 2 3 Elsadda 2001, pp. 37–64
  78. ↑ Spellberg & Aghaie, pp. 42–47
  79. ↑ Spellberg 1994, pp. 4–5
  80. ↑ Spellberg 1994, p. 33
  81. ↑ Abbott 1942, p. 108
  82. 1 2 Abbott 1942, p. 111
  83. 1 2 Abbott 1942, p. 122
  84. ↑ Abbott 1942, p. 123
  85. ↑ See:
  86. ↑ Holt 1977, pp. 67–68
  87. ↑ Madelung 1997, p. 107 and 111
  88. ↑ "Khalifa Ali bin Abu Talib – Ayesha's Occupation of Basra (Hakim b Jabala)". Alim.org. Archived from the original on 2013-11-15. Retrieved 2013-12-31.
  89. ↑ Ishaq, Mohammad. Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society. 3 (Part 1).
  90. ↑ Razwy 2001
  91. ↑ "Khalifa Ali bin Abu Talib – Ayesha's Occupation of Basra (War in Basra)". Alim.org. Archived from the original on 2013-11-15. Retrieved 2013-12-31.
  92. ↑ Glubb 1963, p. 320
  93. ↑ Goodwin 1994
  94. ↑ Muir 1892, p. 261
  95. ↑ Black 1994, p. 34
  96. ↑ Aslan 2005, pp. 58–136
  97. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Anwar, Jawed (April 4, 2005). "History Shows the Importance of Women in Muslim Life". Muslims Weekly. Pacific News Service. Archived from the original on December 24, 2013. Retrieved June 19, 2012.
  98. ↑ Geissinger 2011, pp. 37–49
  99. ↑ Aslan 2005, p. 136
  100. ↑ Ahmed 1992, pp. 47–75
  101. ↑ Geissinger 2011, p. 42
  102. ↑ Haylamaz, Resit (1 March 2013). Aisha: The Wife, The Companion, The Scholar. Tughra Books. pp. 192–193. ISBN 9781597846554. Retrieved 11 July 2018.
  103. ↑ Yusuf ibn Qazghali. Tadhkirat al-Khawas. p. 62.
  104. ↑ Hakim Sanai. Hadoiqa Sanai. pp. 65–67.
  105. ↑ Khwaja Mehboob Qasim Chishti Muhsarafee Qadiri. Musharaf al Mehboobeen. pp. 216–218, 616.
  106. ↑ Ibn Kathir, p. 97
  107. ↑ Richard Crandall (2008). Islam: The Enemy. Xulon Press. p. 129.
  108. ↑ Kelly Bulkeley; Kate Adams; Patricia M. Davis (2009). "6 (Dreaming in the Life of the Prophet Muhammad)". Dreaming in Christianity and Islam: Culture, Conflict, and Creativity. Rutgers University Press. p. 87. ISBN 9780813546100.
  109. ↑ M. Fethullah Gülen (2014). Questions and Answers About Islam Vol. 1. 4.4 (Why Was The Prophet Polygamous?): Işık Yayıncılık Ticaret. ISBN 9781597846189. This is surely why the Prophet was told in a dream that he would marry Aisha.
  110. ↑ "The Book of Marriage". SahihalBukhari.Com. SalafiPublications.Comlocation=Hadeeth No. 4745 & 4787. Archived from the original on 2015-11-23.
  111. ↑ "Objections to the Shia criticisms leveled at Ayesha". Shiapen.com. 2013-10-17. Retrieved 2013-12-31.

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Further reading

  • Afshar, Haleh, Democracy and Islam, Hansard Society, 2006.
  • Rodinson, Maxime, Muhammad, 1980 Random House reprint of English translation
  • Aisha bint Abi Bakr, The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, Oxford University Press, 2000
  • Rizvi, Sa'id Akhtar, The Life of Muhammad The Prophet, Darul Tabligh North America, 1971.
  • Askri, Mortaza, 'Role of Ayesha in the History of Islam' (Translation), Ansarian publication, Iran
  • Chavel, Geneviève. Aïcha : La bien-aimée du prophète. Editions SW Télémaque. 11 October 2007. ISBN 978-2753300552
  • "Biography of Aisha". Archived from the original on 2008-02-01. Retrieved 2004-11-22.
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