Tawala language

In Tawala, negation is most commonly shown through the negative particle ega, which always appears before the predicate of a clause[7]. When the initial vowel is lengthened, forming eega, the negative particle is taken as the predicate of an existential clause[8], or as an interjection/response to indicate ‘no’[9].

Ex. (1) Negation using ega[10]

Ex. (2) Negative existential predicate, eega[8]

Ex. (3) Negative response, eega[9]

The negative particle can also take the future tense marker apo as a prefix to form a negative adverb apega. This construction combines with the irrealis and potential mood across both verbal and non-verbal clauses[7].

Ex. (4) Negative non-verbal clause in irrealis mood[11]

Ex. (5) Negative verbal clause in irrealis mood[7]

Negation can be intensified by adopting the condition marker wai- as a suffix to the negative particle ega[12]; However this construction appears to be limited to the use of response or interjection[9].

Ex. (6) Intensified negation[9]

As Tawala allows for both verbal and non-verbal clauses, the negative particle will never occur within a clause level noun phrase[10]. For example, if the negative particle were placed between a noun and an adjective, then both would be considered constituents of the clause, with the adjective fulfilling the function of the predicate. The following example illustrates this kind of construction.

Ex. (7) Negation of descriptive clause [10]

Existential clauses are common non-verbal clauses which occur within spoken Tawala, though they only occasionally occur within extended discourse. In Tawala, an existential clause consists of a nominal predicate and can often be negated by the addition of the negative particle that precedes the predicate[8].

Ex. (8) Negation of existential clause[8]

Most negative existential clauses cannot be made positive by simply removing the negative particle, a stative clause would be required instead[8]. The below example illustrates this asymmetry. Ex. (9) Asymmetry of positive and negative existential clauses[8]

Negative existential clauses are constructed in the irrealis mood when the negative adverb precedes the existential nominal predicate[11], as shown in example (4).

As mentioned earlier, the negative particle can be taken as the predicate of an existential clause. This construction is used when asking polar questions[13]. The second clause in the following example illustrates its use.

Ex. (10) Negative existential predicate in polar question[13]

Descriptive non-verbal clauses, where an adjective acts as the predicate of the clause, are not often constructed in the negative. In the instances where this does occur, it implies that the negative condition is permanent[14].

Ex. (11) Negation of descriptive clause[14]

As Tawala always places the negative before the predicate and never within a noun phrase, if a negative particle is found between two nouns, it indicates a possessive clause[15]. Compare the example below, which combines an equative and possessive clause.

Ex. (12) Negation of possessive clause[16]

Negation of verbal clauses in Tawala follow the same rules applied to non-verbal clauses: for clauses in the past or present tense, the negative particle precedes the predicate, while the negative tense adverb precedes the predicate for clauses in the future tense. These clauses will either carry the irrealis, potential or hypothetical mood[17][18].

Ex. (13) Negative durative irrealis[19]

Ex. (14) Past irrealis[17]

Ex. (15) Hypothetical[18]

Ex. (16) Negative durative potential[18]

Ex. (17) Future potential[18]

Prohibitive constructions within Tawala are constructed by placing the negative tense adverb before a verbal predicate[18], as illustrated in the example below.

Ex (18). Prohibitive command[18]

Tawala distinguishes three persons: first, second and third. There are only two grammatical numbers, singular and plural although first person plural makes a distinction between inclusive and exclusive.[20]
Although there are five classes of pronouns in Tawala only the independent pronouns class should be considered as pronouns proper as they are the only class consisting of free forms. The remaining four classes occur with independent pronouns in a phrase.<refEzard (1997), p. 72</ref>

Subject prefixes and object enclitics attach to a verb to mark person and number of both subject and object respectively.

Example: The following examples demonstrate the use of some of the above personal pronouns in context.

Tauhi	hai	mae	hi-nonogo-ge-ni.
they	their	stay	3PL-prepare-TRV-3SG
"They prepared their residence."

Tawala distinguishes alienable and inalienable possession.

Alienable possession is constructed by a free-standing possessive pronoun that marks the person and number of the possessor.

Example: The following examples demonstrate the use of some of the above personal pronouns in context.

Lawa	hai	tano	hi-dewa-hi.
person	POSS.3PL	garden	3PL-make-3PL
"The people made their gardens."

Inalienable possession is constructed by attaching a pronominal enclitic to the possessed noun.

Example: The following example demonstrates the use of some of the above personal pronouns in context.

polo	ae-na
pig	leg-POSS.3SG
"The pig's leg."