Sudanese literature

Literature in Sudan of today is either recited or written in the Arabic language, with certain types also in local languages, such as poetry in the Fur language of western Sudan. As in other African countries, both written literature and genres of oral tradition, such as folk tales, proverbs or poems, are common, but depend on their social setting, such as in rural, partly illiterate or in urban educated societies. These oral types of storytelling may be simply recited by individuals or by groups of persons, or they may be accompanied by singing and musical accompaniments, thus transgressing the theoretical definition of literature and music.[4]

Among the living oral traditions, there are the Ahaji folk tales and the Madih, or religious praise tales. The first kind generally have a mythological and often local character. According to literary critic Eiman El-Nour, "they invariably have happy endings and are full of fanciful scenes and superstitions that describe the magic powers of genies and ogres." Madih, the other kind of poetry is typically recited by a singer and chorus, and has a religious character, praising the prophet Muhammad or revered religious leaders.[3]

From the beginning of modern written literature, and going back to age-old oral traditions, poetry and songs have been the most popular genres in Sudan. Before independence, poems and the lyrics of songs were expressions of nationalism and other political issues.[5] An important poet, whose patriotic verses have been used in popular songs like "Azza fī Hawāk" was Khalil Farah (1892-1932).[6] Since then and until today, poetry and songs have occupied a prominent role in Sudanese culture. Songs celebrating the beauty of the land, its regions and sceneries like the Nile valley or her people have been very popular in modern music since at least the 1930s. During modern times of political oppression, these forms of oral literature have been expressions of resistance towards the rulers of the day, and have led to imprisonment or exile of poets like Mahjoub Sharif (1948 - 2014)[7] or musicians like Mohammed Wardi (1932 - 2012).[8]

The latest examples of oral literature as expression of identity, political resistance or visions of the future are the forms of spoken word poetry, political slogans, rap or hip hop music that preceeded and accompanied the Sudanese Revolution of 2018/19.[9][10]

Although there were several newspapers published in Sudan around the beginning of the 20th century, arguably the most important newspaper in terms of impact on modern Sudanese literature was "Al-Ra'id" (The Pioneer). This paper, published in Arabic, started in Khartoum, the Sudanese capital, in 1914 and presented a variety of poetry and other literary forms. Its first editor was the well-known poet and journalist Abdul Raheem Glailati. In 1917, he was deported to Cairo by the British authorities, because of his article criticising the poor living conditions of Sudanese, but even in 1924, he could publish a collection of revolutionary, nationalist poetry.[11] - The other important factor for the development of written literature in Sudan was the spread of modern educational institutions, like the Gordon Memorial College in Khartoum and other non-religious schools in major cities like Omdurman or Wad Madani. Schooling in the English language also provided Sudanese intellectuals with access to English literature, translations from other Western languages and to non-fictional publications on world-wide issues.[12]

Starting in the 1960s, and in line with social developments in other countries at the time, novels dealing with social realist themes, like the conflicts between social classes, were written also in Sudan. These were spurred on by Sudanese academics, returning home from studying in European countries. Literary critic Eiman El-Nour states that a novel by the title of "Al-Faragh al-'arid" (The vast emptiness or The wide hollowness) was the first "true example" of this type.[3] Published in 1970, after the death of its author Malkat Ed-Dar Mohamed (1920 –1969), the work reportedly caused quite a stir, having been written both by a woman and dealing with themes of social reality.[13]

One of the most notable Sudanese writers is Al-Tayyib Salih (1929 – 2009), who wrote novels as well as short stories. His most famous novel, Season of Migration to the North, published in 1967, deals with the coming of age of a student returning to Sudan from England. It was written in Arabic and has subsequently been published in several languages, including English and French.[14]

Amir Taj al-Sir, (born 1960), has published more than a dozen books, including poetry and non-fiction. His first novel Karmakul came out in 1988, and his novel The Hunter of the Chrysalises was shortlisted for the 2011 Arabic Booker Prize.[15] [16]

Abdelaziz Baraka Sakin (born 1963) has written several popular novels and collections of short stories, including al-Jango (2009)[17] that deals with the conditions in a women's prison and won the al-Tayyib Salih Prize for Creative Writing.[18] Even after having been initially sold in local bookstores, his books were confiscated and banned by the Sudanese authorities of the day and are only available outside of Sudan.[19] His novel Masīḥ Dārfūr (The Messiah of Darfur, 2013), taking place in the context of the civil war in Darfur,[20] was published in French in 2016. Since 2012, Baraka Sakin has lived in exile in Austria and has been invited to a number of literary festivals in France and Germany.[21]

Stella Gaitano, born in Khartoum of parents from southern Sudan in 1979, has published both short stories and a novel in Arabic, that have been translated into English. She grew up and studied in Khartoum, and writes stories often dealing with the harsh living conditions of people from southern Sudan, who have endured discrimination and military dictatorship, or war and displacement in the northern part of Sudan.[22]

Another contemporary female writer is Rania Mamoun (born 1979), who has written several novels and short stories, translated as Thirteen Months of Sunrise.[23] Several of her stories have appeared in English translation, including in The Book of Khartoum, Banthology and in Banipal literary magazine.[24]

Sabah Sanhouri (born 1990), is a freelance journalist from Khartoum and writes prose as well as poetry. Her story "The Isolation" won the El-Tayeb Saleh competition for young writers in 2015 and was published both in Arabic, as well as in a French and English translation.[25] Mirrors, her first collection of stories, came out in Egypt and Sudan in 2014,[26] and in 2019, she published her first novel, entitled Paradise.[27]

Born in Cairo of Sudanese parents in 1959, Tarek Eltayeb has been living in Vienna, Austria, since 1984. In addition to seven books in Arabic, he has published his poetry, novels and short stories in German translation.[28] His novel Mudun Bila Nakhil (Cities Without Palms, 1992), tells the story of a young man from Sudan, who first emigrates to Egypt and further on to Europe.[29]

Leila Aboulela, who was born in 1964 in Cairo, Egypt, to an Egyptian mother and a Sudanese father, and grew up in Khartoum, is a Sudanese writer who lives in Great Britain and writes in English. Her poems, short stories and novels have received international acclaim.[30]

Jamal Mahjoub, who was born in London in 1966 of British and Sudanese parents and grew up in Khartoum, writes in English and has published a trilogy taking place in Sudan. His novel A Line in the River (2019) recounts the years from the military coup of 1989 up to the separation of the North and South Sudan in 2001. In an article about literature in Sudan, written just about as the Sudanese Revolution of 2018/19 came to its final stage, he gave the following assessment of the limitations for writers, publishers and readers:[23]

The last 30 years have been difficult for Sudanese artists of all kinds – among them musicians and painters, but particularly writers. The 1989 coup triggered an exodus. People left to settle in Cairo and the Gulf, North America and Europe, even Japan and Australia. Inside the country, a new generation of writers has since grown up in the shadow of repression. Despite these difficulties writers have continued to work and publish, both within the country and abroad. In a climate where newspapers are regularly censored, journalists detained and print runs seized, books have remained cherished items to be passed around with reverence.

— Jamal Mahjoub, Top 10 books about Sudan. The Guardian, May 2019

A representative of young writers of Sudanese origin, living in the worldwide Sudanese diaspora, is Safia Elhillo (born 1990), a Sudanese-American poet known for her written and spoken poetry. Her poems have appeared in several publications, including Poetry, Callaloo, and the Academy of American Poets’ Poem-a-day series, and in anthologies, such as The BreakBeat Poets: New American Poetry in the Age of Hip-Hop and Women of Resistance: Poems for a New Feminism. Her collection of poetry The January Children (2017) refers to the children born in Sudan under British occupation, whose birth date was often indiscriminately recorded as January 1st.[31][32]

An outstanding Sudanese scholar and literary critic with a long list of publications on poetry or other genres from Sudan and in Arabic in general, was Abdalla Eltayeb (1921 – 2003). His primary field of study was the Arabic language and its creative use in poetry. One of his most notable works is A Guide to Understanding Arabic Poetry, a massive opus written over thirty-five years. Eltayeb was also president of Khartoum's Arab Language League and a member of the Academy of the Arabic Language in Cairo. Through his works of fiction and radio programmes on literature, he contributed to a wider appreciation of literature for people without access to written sources.[33]

• Arabic literature
• Modern Arabic literature
• List of Sudanese writers
• Culture of Sudan
• Culture of South Sudan - Literature
• Music of Sudan

• Cormack, Ralph and Shmookler, Max (eds.) (2016) The Book of Khartoum. A City in Short Fiction. ISBN 9781905583720
• Elhillo, Safia. The January Children. University of Nebraska Press, 2017
• Magid, Djamela et al. (eds.), I Know Two Sudans: An Anthology of Creative Writing from Sudan and South Sudan, 2014
• Mahjoub, Jamal. Top 10 books about Sudan. The Guardian, May 2019
• Mahjoub, Jamal. Navigation of a Rainmaker (1989), Wings of Dust (1994), In the Hour of Signs (1996)
• Qualey, Marcia Lynx. Sudanese Literature: North and South. Arablit.org
• Shenoda, Matthew (ed.) Modern Sudanese Poetry: An Anthology. Lincoln, NE, 2019
• Shringarpure, Bhakti et al. Literary Sudans: An Anthology of Literature from Sudan and South Sudan. Trenton: The Red Sea Press, 2016.