Silk Road transmission of art

Southern Asia is the oldest part of Asia and was the Birthplace of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. All of the major ancient civilizations of the world were located near rivers or the sea. The Indus Valley Civilization of Harappa is noted to have had a granary and public well around 2500-2000 BCE. This reflects the long term nature of the civilization and the sophistication of these people. Around 327-326 BCE Alexander the Great invaded India and from 273-232 BCE Ashoka, third ruler of the Mauryan empire, promoted Buddhism and art work along the Silk Road, making it more defined and recognizable.

Stupas took on varying functions over multiple centuries, but they all served as a place of worship for the Buddha in different ways. Trade connects to Buddhism as the geographic locations of the religious institutions aligned with the merchants routes and this most definitely helped spread Buddhist teachings over long distances. There was a connectedness from religion and trade to art and military trade movements. The Amluk Dara Stupa, erected around the 3rd century C.E. was a way point for lots of merchants. The Stupa served as a holy reliquary and the act of making a stupa was religious. Stupas were meant for circumambulation, or walking around the outskirts of the structure in a circular movement as a form of meditation rather than entering, which is quite different compared to other religious structures.

The Bronze Age in China largely consisted of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties. There were artifacts made during these eras such as the Cong of the Neolithic period (10,000-2,000 BCE). These were used for burial tombs, had faces of spirits or deities, and wouldn’t entirely separate humans from animals. During the Shang dynasty, ceremonious vessels were prominent. These vessels would not be for food and liquids, rather, they were for religious rituals as they were spiritually charged vessels. The right to rule was given to those who possessed these because they often stayed within a specific family for centuries as they were difficult to move and suggested powerful rule. The most important component of the vessels was the fact that they served as an intermediary between the ruler and ancestors. Practices from the Bronze work helped create ceramics in mass production. Artists would adopt their old techniques to create such masterpieces like the Terra Cotta soldiers. Chinese art was mainly used for burial practices, the courtly elite, and Buddhism (around 65 CE).

The use of altars were common during the Sui dynasty, for the emperor was a devout Buddhist. Pictured below is a rectangular, ornamental, green/bronze altar titled “The Western Paradise of Amitabha Buddha.” This altar was used to burn incense and it was a worship item to venerate the Buddha. The altars were delicate and were something only a wealthy individual would own, instead of going to a monastery like other worshippers.

The Shinto religion in Japan shifted into Buddhism and common themes were present in Japanese works of art. Similarities included the use of Bodhisattvas, skirt ripples, almond halo shaped head pieces, and bun hairdos. The influence extended further as forms of entertainment, music, and images were all representative of Central Asian influences. The Tale of Genji, pictured below in a handscroll, was an iconic depiction of the story and highlights the elaborate artwork in Japan during the Heian period. The ironic story is about a man who pursues lots of women and sleeps with a woman who’s having another man's child. He has to celebrate his wife even though it is not his child. There is a sophistication represented in the layered textiles and there is no facial expression because he is looking at the viewers with shame. The use of neutral, faded colors characterizes the scene as dull and melancholy.

Islam’s religious structure is made up of five pillars of faith (The Profession of Faith, Ritual prayer, Charity, Fasting during Ramadan, and Hajj/ Pilgrimaage to Mecca) The architecture and artwork associated with religion often mimic the beliefs and Islam is no exception. The Taj Mahal had influence from Hindu temples but there were many Islamic-esque traditions as well. The Taj Mahal has a central dome with subsidiary domes and four main towers. The towers resembled minerettes which were common around mosques. The act of Ritual prayer aligns with the structural component of the towers and therefore embodies the use of ritual art.

It is imperative that we examine the slave trade that existed when studying the Silk Road. Just as elite members would trade beautiful artwork and luxury items, slaves were a part of this trade. The upper class profited the most from slavery and the slaves themselves were treated as a commodity. The Slave trade extended all the way to Dublin, Ireland and crossed bodies of waters. Perhaps the most important thing to keep in mind when thinking about the slave trade is the fact that history is recorded by the winners of society at a given time and the slaves perspective might be misconstrued or irrepresentative of their lives. Therefore, it’s important to examine the slave trade with a critical eye.

Ancient Chinese Scrolls were an important part of the Silk Road as there were influences from one period to the next; from the Neolithic period to the Han dynasty to the Tsang dynasty. Handscrolls and hanging scrolls on silk were most popular during the Tsang dynasty in China. The handscroll was used more like a book than a painting, as they were a religious and almost ceremonious experience. Handscrolls were carefully unbound and analyzed slowly as this was not a regular or daily exercise. Hanging scrolls, on the other hand, were to be looked at regularly and served more as a decoration than ritualistic art. The images in these scrolls were intentional and offered a sense of beauty in simplicity. The artists would take on the tactic of using space to create a sense of emptiness and making colors seem present even when only blank ink was used.

Japanese Zen Buddhism suggests that people who art trying to achieve the ultimate state of “Zen” seek an outside disciple or master who can provide external stimulus and teach them. There is an act of minimalism associated with Japanese meditation and art. There is an act called the “tea ceremony” which is used to strip down distracting thoughts. Forms of simplicity can be found in a variety of Japanese works ranging from paintings like “The Great Wave” to large structures such as “Himeji Castle.” [found below] Furthermore, there was a large religious and spiritual presence in Japanese works. For example, the Forbidden City and other imperial cities would deem their ruler the “Son of Heaven,” and would make sure to choose an astronomically sound date to establish their cities.

Following contacts of metropolitan China with nomadic western and northwestern border territories in the 8th century BCE, gold was introduced from Central Asia, and Chinese jade carvers began to make imitation designs of the steppes, adopting the Scythian-style animal art of the steppes (descriptions of animals locked in combat). This style is particularly reflected in the rectangular belt plaques made of gold and bronze with alternate versions in jade and steatite.[1]

Even though that happened, the correspondence between the "Scythians" as an ethnic group and their material culture is still subject to discussion and research. The subject is part of the broader "nomadic" and "sedentary" debate.

Western-influenced Zhou vase with glass inlays, 4th-3rd century BCE, British Museum.

Zhou/Han bronze mirror with glass inlays, perhaps incorporated Greco-Roman artistic patterns (rosette flowers, geometric lines, and glass inlays). Victoria and Albert Museum.

Following the expansion of the Greco-Bactrians into Central Asia, Greek influences on Han art have often been suggested (Hirth, Rostovtzeff). Designs with rosette flowers, geometric lines, and glass inlays, suggestive of Hellenistic influences, can be found on some early Han dynasty bronze mirrors.[2][3]

Symbols of Buddhist art include images of a lion who embodies kingship and power. A wheel can often be found in a Buddhist context, with the “turning wheel” image representing the act of preaching. In addition, many Buddhist sculptures or paintings will have some kind of base with an upside-down lotus flower. There are four noble truths in Buddhism: life is suffering, desire causes suffering, the cause of desire must be overcome, when desire is overcome, there is no more suffering. There is a widely accepted understanding that Buddhism is an effort to escape the world, which is seen as the source of suffering, through good acts of meditation. Hence, many Buddhist art forms revolve around meditative acts. The image of the Buddha holding up one hand, with legs crossed in a reflective state is recognized around the world. Buddhist art was prominent in the Himalayas and pieces like the mandala offered cardinal directions with a place in the world. Tibetan Buddhism was so widespread, it extended all the way up to Russia.

Buddha

Iconographic evolution of the Buddha. Left: A buddha in the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, 3rd century CE. Right: A Buddha in Kamakura, Japan (1252).

A Buddha in Seokguram, South Korea. It was influenced by Gandhara art.

The image of the Buddha, originating during the 1st century CE in northern India (areas of Gandhara and Mathura) was transmitted progressively through Central Asia and then China until it reached Japan in the 6th century.[4]

To this day however the transmission of many iconographical details is still visible, such as the Hercules inspiration behind the Nio guardian deities in front of Japanese Buddhist temples, or representations of the Buddha reminiscent of Greek art such as the Buddha in Kamakura.

See also: History of Buddhism, Buddhist art, Greco-Buddhist art

Some elements of western iconography were adopted from the East along the Silk Road. The aureole in Christian art first appeared in the 5th century, but practically the same device was known several centuries earlier, in non-Christian art. It is found in some Persian representations of kings and Gods, and appears on coins of the Kushan kings Kanishka, Huvishka and Vasudeva, as well as on most representations of the Buddha in Greco-Buddhist art from the 1st century CE. Another image which appears to have transferred from China via the Silk Road is the symbol of the Three hares, showing three animals running in a circle. It has been traced back to the Sui dynasty in China, and is still to be found in sacred sites in many parts of Western Europe, and especially in churches in Dartmoor, Devon.

• Scythian art
• Gandhara art
• Greco-Buddhist art
• Silk Road transmission of Buddhism
• Mogao Caves
• Longmen Grottoes

• Alexander the Great: East-West Cultural contacts from Greece to Japan. Tokyo: NHK Puromōshon and Tokyo National Museum, 2003.
• Jerry H.Bentley. Old World Encounters: Cross-cultural Contacts and Exchanges in Pre-modern Times. Oxford–NY: Oxford University Press, 1993. ISBN 0-19-507639-7
• John Boardman. The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994. ISBN 0-691-03680-2
• Osmund Bopearachchi, Christian Landes, and Christine Sachs. De l'Indus à l'Oxus : Archéologie de l'Asie centrale. Lattes, France: Association IMAGO & Musée de Lattes, 2003. ISBN 2-9516679-2-2
• Elizabeth Errington, Joe Cribb, & Maggie Claringbull, eds. The Crossroads of Asia: Transformation in Image and Symbols. Cambridge: Ancient India and Iran Trust, 1992, ISBN 0-9518399-1-8
• Richard Foltz. Religions of the Silk Road: Premodern Patterns of Globalization, 2nd edn. NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010. ISBN 978-0-230-62125-1
• J.P. Mallory & Victor Mair. The Tarim Mummies. London: Thames and Hudson, 2000. ISBN 0-500-05101-1
• William Woodthorpe Tarn. The Greeks in Bactria and India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1951.

• Along the ancient silk routes: Central Asian art from the West Berlin State Museums, an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF)