Osroes I

In 109, Osroes I revolted against Parthian king Pacorus II (r. 78–110) in order to claim the throne for himself.[1] During the reign of Pacorus II's son Vologases III (r. 110–147), Osroes I managed to seize the western part of the empire, including Mesopotamia, while Vologases III ruled in the east.[2][3] In 113, Osroes I violated the Treaty of Rhandeia with the Romans by deposing Vologases III's brother Axidares and appointing the latters brother Parthamasiris as the king of Armenia.[2][4] This gave the Roman emperor Trajan (r. 98–117) the pretext to invade the Parthian domain and take advantage of the civil war ongoing between Vologases III and Osroes I.[2][3] In 114, Trajan conquered Armenia and turned it into a Roman province.[4] In 116, Trajan captured Seleucia and Ctesiphon, the capitals of the Parthians.[5] Trajan even reached as far as the Persian Gulf, where he forced the Parthian vassal ruler of Characene, Attambelos VII, to pay tribute.[6][7] Fearing a revolt by the Parthians, Trajan installed Osroes I's son Parthamaspates on the throne at Ctesiphon.[6][8]

However, these gains were short-lived; revolts occurred in all the conquered territories, with the Babylonians and Jews pushing the Romans out of Mesopotamia, and the Armenians under a certain Sanatruk causing the Romans problems.[9] After Trajans death in 117, the Parthians removed Parthamaspates from the throne and reinstated Osroes I.[6] Trajan's successor, Hadrian (r. 117–138) renounced the remnants of Trajan's conquests in the east, and acknowledged the Treaty of Rhandeia, with the Parthian prince Vologases becoming the new king of Armenia.[10] The weakened state of the western part of the Parthian Empire gave Vologases III—whose eastern domains were untouched—the opportunity to regain lost territory seized by Osroes I.[3] In 129, Vologases III finally managed to remove Osroes I from power.[1][11]

On the obverse of his silver coins, Osroes I is portrayed with his hair in bunches, whilst wearing a diadem.[12] On his bronze coins, however, he is portrayed with a tiara with hooks and a horn on the side.[12] The coins of Osroes I closely resembles that of his namesake, the Elymais ruler Osroes, which has led to scholars to suggest that they might have been the same person.[13][14] Another possibility is that the Elymais ruler Osroes copied the coins of Osroes I of Parthia.[13][14]

• Badian, Ernst (2002). "Hadrian". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. XI, Fasc. 4. p. 458.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Bivar, A.D.H. (1983). "The Political History of Iran Under the Arsacids". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3(1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian Periods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 21–99. ISBN 0-521-20092-X.
• Chaumont, M. L. (1986). "Armenia and Iran ii. The pre-Islamic period". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 4. pp. 418–438.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Chaumont, M. L.; Schippmann, K. (1988). "Balāš". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. III, Fasc. 6. pp. 574–580.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Dąbrowa, Edward (2012). "The Arsacid Empire". In Daryaee, Touraj (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford University Press. pp. 1–432. ISBN 0-19-987575-8. Archived from the original on 2019-01-01. Retrieved 2019-01-13.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Gregoratti, Leonardo (2017). "The Arsacid Empire". In Daryaee, Touraj (ed.). King of the Seven Climes: A History of the Ancient Iranian World (3000 BCE - 651 CE). UCI Jordan Center for Persian Studies. pp. 1–236. ISBN 9780692864401.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Hansman, John F. (1998). "Elymais". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. VIII, Fasc. 4. pp. 373–376.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Kettenhofen, Erich (2004). "Trajan". Encyclopaedia Iranica. pp. 418–438.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Kia, Mehrdad (2016). The Persian Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1610693912.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link) (2 volumes)
• Olbrycht, Marek Jan (1997). "Parthian King's tiara - Numismatic evidence and some aspects of Arsacid political ideology". 2: 27–61. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Olbrycht, Marek Jan (2016). "The Sacral Kingship of the early Arsacids. I. Fire Cult and Kingly Glory": 91–106. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
• Rezakhani, Khodadad (2013). "Arsacid, Elymaean, and Persid Coinage". In Potts, Daniel T. (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Iran. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199733309.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)