Manam language

Some vowels become glides in diphthongs, e.g. /u/, /o/ > [w] and /i/, /e/ > [j]. /i/ and /u/ are 'weaker' than /e/ and /o/, so that the syllable /kuo/ becomes [kwo] and not *[kuw]

According to Turner, /k/ is more and more often realized as [ʔ], while some older speakers have [q].

The Manam syllable is (C)(V₁)V(V₁)(C₁), the only exception is a syllabic [m̩].

There are some phonotactic restrictions on the prevalent syllable structure. E.g. V₁ cannot be [a], whereas V must be [a] as long as it's not the syllable's sole vowel. C can be any consonant, whereas C₁ must be a nasal consonant.

Stress is phonemic: /ˈsara/ 'palm tree', /saˈra/ 'seagull'. The stress falls on one of the three last syllables of a word, and stressing the penult syllable is the most common: /ˈnatu/ 'child', /maˈlipi/ 'work'. If the last syllable ends in a nasal consonant, it will be stressed instead: /naˈtum/ 'your child'. Some inflections and affixes do not alter the stress of the root word: /iˈto/ 'he learned' (i- is a 3rd person prefix), /siˈŋabalo/ 'in the bush' (-lo is a locative suffix).

In the orthography, stressed vowels can be underlined in order to avoid ambiguities. Ie. /ˈsara/ ⟨sara⟩ 'palm tree', /saˈra/ ⟨sara⟩ 'seagull'.

The basic, unmarked word order in Manam is SOV:

tamoata	boro	i-un-i
man	pig	3SG.SUB-hit-3SG.OBJ

"The man hit the pig."

Lichtenberk defines the predicator as the primary element within a clause.[3]^:92 The predicator of a Manam clause can be realised in a variety of different ways, such as verb phrases Ex. (1), noun phrases Ex. (2), postpositional phrases Ex. (3), numbers Ex. (4), etc.[3]^:93

Ex. (1): verb phrase predicator[3]^:94

Ex. (2): noun phrase predicator[3]^:94

Ex. (3): postpositional phrase predicator[3]^:94

Ex. (4): numeral predicator[3]^:94

Negation in Manam is primarily expressed using one of two negative markers: moaʔi and tago. moaʔi is used exclusively in direct speech prohibitions; whilst tago is used for all other cases.[3]^:384

The use of tago is primarily categorised by its scope of negation, which further indicates the focus of the clause. The spectrum of scope runs from negating one or more elements within a single clause, to negating an entire clause. The concept of scope of negation can be demonstrated in English: ‘I did not go to the party’ is an example of a broad scope of negation, i.e. the verb phrase (VP) is negated, therefore act of going to the party is negated; ‘not one person went to the party’ is an example of a narrow scope of negation, i.e. the subject is negated, not the act of going to the party.

A broad scope of negation is expressed in Manam by negating the predicator—this is done so by placing the negative marker tago before the predicator,[3]^:385 as demonstrated in the following examples:

Ex. (5): broad scope negation–1 element[3]^:385

Ex. (6): broad scope negation–2 elements[3]^:385

Ex. (7): broad scope negation–3 elements[3]^:385

Additionally, the negative marker tago can also function as a predicator of existential and possessive clauses.[3]^:387 Compare the following examples:

Ex. (8): negative existential sentence[3]^:387

Ex. (9): negative possessive sentence[3]^:387

As a general rule, Manam primarily expresses narrow scope negation by placing tago before the element which is being negated i.e. the object of focused negation within the clause.

Ex. (10): narrow scope negation[3]^:387

In example (10), it is not the act of coming that is being negated, rather the negation is narrowly focused in negating the presence of the brother.

Ex. (11): narrow scope negation[3]^:387

Similarly, in example (11), it is not the act of calling one's name that is being negated, rather the negation focuses the fact that someone was called, but by some other name that was not their own.

Additionally, the negative marker tago can be used in conjunction with the quantifiers teʔe ‘one’ and alu ‘some’ to produce the negative expressions, tago teʔe ‘no; not any’ and tago alu ‘no; not any’.[3]^:386 These expressions function as attributes within the noun phrases that they modify, as seen in the following examples (NP are enclosed within brackets):

Ex. (12): negation using tago teʔe[3]^:386

Ex. (13): negation using tago teʔe[3]^:386

More specifically, tago alu is used to modify noun phrases whose head are mass nouns; tago teʔecomparatively modifies count nouns.[3]^:386 Compare the following two examples:

Ex. (14): negative quantifier mass noun[3]^:386

Ex. (15): negative quantifier count noun[3]^:386

Negation in Manam can be intensified by appending the buffer element –na and the intensifier suffix –tina to tago,[3]^:388 as seen in the following example:

Ex. (16): intensifier suffix[3]^:389

The buffer element –na, however, is not included when tago acts as the predicator of a clause,[3]^:388 as seen in the following example:

Ex. (17): intensified predicator[3]^:389

Additionally, negation in Manam can be intensified using sesu ‘little’,[3]^:389 as seen in the following example:

Ex. (18): intensifier sesu[3]^:389

Moreover, sesu ‘little’ can be used in conjunction with –tina within the same clause, as seen in the following example:[3]^:388

Ex. (19): intensifier sesu + suffix –tina[3]^:389

Furthermore, the suffix –tina may be appended to the prohibitive marker moaʔi (with the presence of the buffer –na),[3]^:419 as seen in the following example:

Ex. (20): suffix –tina + prohibitive marker moaʔi[3]^:340

Manam expresses prohibitions in two basic ways: using finite verbs—defined as verb (phrase) forms that can occur on their own in a main clause;[4]^:183 using gerunds and verbal nouns. Lichtenberk defines gerunds as verb nuclei used to indicate ‘non-specific’ events, whereas verbal nouns are used to indicate ‘specific’ events.[3]^:243–244 Compare the following examples:

Ex. (21): gerund[3]^:244

Ex. (22): verbal noun[3]^:244

The basic structure of prohibitive constructions using finite verbs is moaʔi followed by a verb with a realis subject/mood prefix,[3]^:438 as seen in the following examples:

Ex. (23): prohibitive construction finite verb[3]^:418

Ex. (24): prohibitive construction finite verb w/ subject NP[3]^:419

Ex. (25): prohibitive construction finite verb w/ direct object NP[3]^:419

Sometimes, however—the subject or direct object NP may occur between moaʔi and the verb,[3]^:419 as in the following example:

Ex. (26): prohibitive construction finite verb[3]^:419

Prohibitive constructions using gerunds or verbal nouns are formed by placing the prohibitive/negative marker moaʔi after the gerund or verbal noun,[3]^:420 demonstrated in the following example:

Ex. (27): prohibitive construction using gerund/verbal noun[3]^:421

^:412The distinction between using a gerund or a verbal noun is determined by whether the source verb is transitive (verbal noun) or intransitive (gerund).[3]^:420

Additionally, the form raʔania ‘never mind’ may also be used in forming prohibitive constructions using gerunds and verbal nouns. The location of raʔania within the clause is more dynamic than the prohibitive/negative marker moaʔi, as raʔania may occur both following or preceding the verbal noun or gerund.^:420[3] Compare the following two examples:

Ex. (28): prohibitive construction using raʔania (following)[3]^:412

Ex. (29): prohibitive construction using raʔania (preceding)[3]

The negative marker tago is used when expressing prohibitions in indirect speech[3]^:422—its behaviour is identical as in its regular usage: tago is placed before the element which is being negated, as seen in the following example:

Ex. (30): indirect prohibitive construction[3]^:422

Manam has an unusual, though regionally common, four-way distinction between singular, dual, trial, and plural number. Singular and plural are marked on the verb and sometimes on the adjective, but not on the noun.

Reduplication can be either leftward (sa-salaga) or rightward (salaga-laga). There is no point in distinguishing 'partial' and 'total' reduplication, since at most two syllables are reduplicated.

Rightwards reduplicated nouns can either take on a meaning related to the original word, or function as an agentive marker:

moata	snake
moata-moata	worm
malipi	the work
malipi-lipi	worker

Here are two examples of how number can be marked on the adjective through the different kinds of reduplication:

Rightward reduplication (singular)

udi noka-noka	ripe banana
tamoata bia-bia	the big man

Leftward reduplication (plural)

udi no-noka	ripe bananas
tamoata bi-bia	the big men

The verb always marks the subject and the mood; these are fused together. Optional suffixes includes such things as object, direction, aspectual markers, benefactive and various kinds of intensifiers and quantifiers. Here's a schematical overview of the Manam verb:

The marking of subject is obligatory. In addition to expressing number and person, the pronouns have fused with the mood markers (see below) called realis and irrealis.

The realis mood (REAL) is used for actual events of the past or present, i.e. things that are certain to have happened, things that are "real". Accordingly, the irrealis (IRR) mood describes anticipated events in the future, or events that the speaker wishes were real.

ura	nga-pura
rain	3SG.IRR-come

"it will rain"

u-noku

1SG.REAL-jump

"I jumped"

nga-pile	i-bebe
3SG.IRR-say	3SG.REAL-unable

"he will say that he is unable" (he still hasn’t said anything, but when he does, his inability will be stated as actual)

tama-gu	i-rere	zama	go-pura
father-1SG.POSS	3SG.REAL-want	tomorrow	2SG.IRR-come

"my father wants you to come tomorrow" (the father’s wanting is real, whereas the anticipated coming is still unreal)

Manner prefixes are found between the subject/mood marker and the verb root. The manner prefixes describe in what manner the verb action was done, such as 'biting', 'cutting', 'throwing' etc.

boro	u-tara-paka-i
pig	1SG.REAL-spearing-miss-3SG.OBJ

"I speared at the pig but missed it"

mi-ang-ko

1SG.IRR-give-2SG.OBJ

"I will give (it) to you"

niu	u-sing-Ø
coconut	1SG.REAL-drink-3SG.OBJ

"I drank a coconut"

go-ang-kama

2SG.IRR-give-EXCL

"give it to us"

There are three different morphologically overt methods for turning intransitive verbs into transitive ones:

• The preffix -aka- can occur between the person/mood marker and the verb root.
• The suffix -ka- can occur between the verb root and the outer suffixes.
• The so-called "transitive consonant" (TC) can occur between the verb root and the outer suffixes.

These methods can be combined.

dang	i-aka-gita-i
water	3SG.REAL-TRANS-be_hot-3SG.OBJ

"he heated the water"

aka-tukura--ng-ak-i

TRANS-be_short-TC-TRANS-3SG.OBJ

"to shorten it"

The object suffixes are also optional, but rather common. Here are a few examples of some of the more unusual suffix types:

Direction

go-dok-a-mai

2SG.IRR-bring-3SG.OBJ-hither

"bring it here"

Spreading

"he throws rubbish all over the place"

Intensifying

u-rere-tina

1SG.REAL-like-very

"I like it very much"

Benefactive

go-moasi-n-a

2SG.IRR-sing-BEN-1SG.OBJ

"sing for me"

Most adjectives are derived by reduplication from a verb or a noun. As seen above, some reduplicated adjectives have a number distinction, but some others don't, e.g. siki-siki 'small' (singular and plural). Some adjectives use the possessive pronouns to mark person and number, e.g. kapisa-Ø 'selfish' (singular) and kapisa-di 'selfish' (plural).

As in many other Austronesian languages, Manam expresses different degrees of possession. In addition to the most common differentitation between alienable and inalienable possession, Manam uses a particular morphological processes to describe belongings that are edible or associated with eating.

In this class, we find 'belongings' that are involuntary, such as body parts, family members and different kinds of necessary 'parts of a whole'. This class is characterized by simply a possessive suffix attached to the word in question:

mata-gu

eye-1SG.POSS

"my eye"

niu	labu-di
coconut	base-3PL.POSS

"the bases of the coconut trees"

In this class, we find things that are edible and 'used to obtain, prepare or store food'. This class is characterized by the word kana, which is placed after the possessed thing and to which the possessive suffix is attached:

udi	kana-gu
banana	FOOD-1SG.POSS

"my banana"

In this class, we find belongings that are voluntary; things that we can cease to own, unlike body parts or family. This class is characterized by the word ne, which is placed after the possessed thing and to which the possessive suffix is attached:

kati	ne-gu
canoe	ALIEN-1SG.POSS

"my canoe"

natu	keu	ne-di
child	dog	ALIEN-3PL.POSS

"the children’s dogs"

One fascinating thing is that the same word can occur in all three possession classes, and then of course its meaning will differ. Here are two examples: