Impostor syndrome

Building upon decades of research, Valerie Young further looked into fraudulent feelings among high achievers. From her book The Secret Thoughts of Successful Women: Why Capable People Suffer From the Imposter Syndrome and How to Thrive in Spite of It, she was able to identify five subgroups this syndrome often falls into.

• The perfectionist

• The superwoman/man

• The natural genius

• The soloist

• The expert

Studies suggest that more than 70% of people experience the impostor syndrome at some point in their career. By identifying the above competency point, steps can be taken towards addressing it.[7][8]

The impostor cycle, as defined by Clance, begins with an achievement-related task. An example of an achievement-related task could be an exercise that was assigned through work or school. Once one has received an assignment, feelings of anxiety, self-doubt, and worry immediately follow. The cycle accounts for two possible reactions that stem from these feelings. One will respond either by over-preparation or by procrastination.

If one responds with procrastination, this initial response will turn into a frantic effort to complete the job. Once the task has been completed, there will be a brief period of accomplishment and feeling of relief. If positive feedback is given once the work has been completed and turned in, one will discount the positive feedback.

If one responded to the task with over-preparation, the successful outcome will be seen as a result of hard work. If one responds by procrastination, one will view the outcome as a matter of luck. In the impostor cycle, gaining success through hard work or luck is not interpreted as a matter of true, personal ability. This means that it does not matter which mechanism one used to complete the task. Even if the outcome results in a positive response, the feedback given has no effect on one's perception of personal success. This leads one to discount positive feedback.

This sequence of events serves as a reinforcement, causing the cycle to remain in motion. With every cycle, feelings of perceived fraudulence, increased self-doubt, depression, and anxiety accumulate. As the cycle continues, increased success leads to the intensification of feeling like a fraud. This experience causes one to remain haunted by one's lack of perceived personal ability. Believing that at any point one can be 'exposed' for who one thinks one really is keeps the cycle in motion.[4]

Studies on impostor phenomenon have received mixed reviews regarding the presence of impostor phenomenon in men and women.[2] Clance and Imes investigated this experience in high achieving women in their 1978 study.[4] Following the publication of this study, researchers have investigated impostor phenomenon in both men and women. Clance and Imes suggested that this experience manifests in women more than in men.[4]

A study in 2006 looked at gender differences when exploring a possible relationship between the feeling of being an impostor and the achievement of goals. The researchers concluded that the women who participated in this study experienced impostor phenomenon more so than the men who participated.[9] Other research has shown that women commonly face impostor phenomenon in regard to performance. The perception of ability and power is evidenced in out-performing others. For men, impostor phenomenon is often driven by the fear of being unsuccessful, or not good enough.[10] Despite these differences, there is a significant amount of literature on impostor phenomenon and gender differences stating that it is spread equally among men and women.[10]

Research findings suggest that impostor syndrome/phenomenon affects ethnic women mentally and academically. A pattern in the research literature shows that women report experiencing impostor phenomenon more frequently than men. Ethnic women also often are afflicted with impostor syndrome in elite universities.[11] Research stated that though men do experience doubt and lack of belonging in academia, being a woman and a person of color in the United States means being susceptible to encountering "hideous forms of racism and sexism".[12] Therefore, these experiences of racism and sexism amplify the likelihood that ethnic women might experience impostor phenomenon.

The intersection of race and gender for ethnic women in academia is important because both identities can heavily impact ethnic women and their academic experience, especially if their identities are visible. For example, a black woman in higher education might fear she will be stereotyped as aggressive or angry if she expresses a controversial opinion in class. According to Miller and Kastberg, both explicit and subtle forms of racism and sexism make it much more difficult for ethnic women to break through the barriers of higher education.[11] Another example: explicit racist policies that exclude Asian American women suggest that they do not experience academic barriers. Therefore, these women may not feel as though they are allowed to ask for help.

Studies on impostor phenomenon have shown that the intersecting identities of ethnic women in academia affect identity development and goal achievement. For example, Ostrove (2003) found that ethnic women from lower- and middle-class backgrounds reported feeling more alienated from their peers during their time spent at an elite college.[13] Similarly, Walton and Cohen's (2007) work on the effects of racial underrepresentation at elite private universities shows that ethnic women who experience social alienation in academia could easily experience impostor syndrome.[12]

Common causes of impostor phenomenon include feelings such as stigma, stereotype threat, or an overall sense of "intellectual phoniness". For example, a woman attending a predominately white institution is likely to worry that her accomplishments are not good enough relative to her peers’ accomplishments. These thoughts could derive from feeling that she was accepted into a university because of affirmative action or by "accident".[14]

Impostor phenomenon can occur in other various settings. Some examples include:

• A new environment[2]
• Academic settings[4]
• In the workplace[4]
• Social interactions[6]
• Relationships (platonic or romantic)[6]

In relationships, people with impostorism often feel they do not live up to the expectations of their friends or loved ones. It is common for the individual with impostorism to think that they must have somehow tricked others into liking them and wanting to spend time with them. They experience feelings of being unworthy, or of not deserving the beneficial relationships they possess.[6]

There is empirical evidence that demonstrates the harmful effects of impostor phenomenon in students. Studies have shown that when a student's academic self-concept increases, the symptoms of impostor phenomenon decrease, and vice versa.[10] The worry and emotions the students held, had a direct impact of their performance in the program.

Common facets of impostor phenomenon in the class-room include:[6]

• Students compared themselves to their class-mates[2]
• Students did not feel prepared academically when they compared themselves to their class-mates[2]
• Students often questioned the grounds on which they were accepted into the program[6]
• Students perceived that positive recognition, awards, and good grades stemmed from external factors, not from personal ability or intelligence.[6]

Cokley et al. investigated the impact impostor phenomenon has on students, specifically ethnic minority students. They found that the feelings the students had of being fraudulent resulted in psychological distress. Ethnic minority students often questioned the grounds on which they were accepted into the program. They held the false assumption that they only received their acceptance due to affirmative action—rather than an extraordinary application and qualities they had to offer.[16]

Research has shown that there is a relationship between impostor phenomenon and the following factors:

• Family expectations[6]
• Overprotective parent(s) or legal guardian(s)[15]
• Graduate-level coursework[6]
• Racial identities[6]
• Attribution style[10]
• Anxiety[10]
• Depression[10]
• Low trait self-esteem[10]
• Perfectionism[4]
• Excessive self-monitoring, with an emphasis on self-worth[2]

The aspects listed are not mutually exclusive. These components are often found to correlate among individuals with impostor phenomenon. It is incorrect to infer that the correlational relationship between these aspects cause the impostor experience.[6]

In individuals with impostor phenomenon, feelings of guilt often result in a fear of success. The following are examples of common notions that lead to feelings of guilt and reinforce the phenomenon.[9]

• The good education they were able to receive
• Being acknowledged by others for success
• Belief that it is not right or fair to be in a better situation than a friend or loved one
• Being referred to as:[6]
  • "The smart one"
  • "The talented one"
  • "The responsible one"
  • "The sensitive one"
  • "The good one"
  • "Our favorite"