Heteronym (linguistics)

A heteronym (also known as a heterophone) is a word that has a different pronunciation and meaning from another word but the same spelling. These are homographs that are not homophones. Thus, lead (a metal element) and lead (a leash or halter to direct an animal) are heteronyms, but mean (intend) and mean (average) are not, since they are pronounced the same. Heteronym pronunciation may vary in vowel realisation, in stress pattern (see also Initial-stress-derived noun), or in other ways.

Euler diagram showing the relationships between heteronyms and related linguistic concepts.

Description

A heteronym is a homograph that is not a homophone, a word that has a different pronunciation and meaning from another word with the same spelling. Heteronym pronunciation may vary in vowel realisation, in stress pattern, or in other ways.

"Heterophone" literally just means "different sound", and this term is sometimes applied to words that are just pronounced differently, irrespective of their spelling. Such a definition would include virtually every pair of words in the language, so "heterophone" in this sense is normally restricted to instances where there is some particular reason to highlight the different sound. For example, puns normally involve homophones, but in the case of heterophonic (or imperfect) puns, the two words sound different, and yet similar enough for one to suggest the other (for example, mouth and mouse).

Types

Most heteronyms are doubles. Triple heteronyms are extremely rare; two examples, sin and mobile, are listed below.

Proper nouns can sometimes be heteronyms. For example, the final syllable of Oregon is pronounced like the word in by residents of that state in the United States, while in the name of the village of Oregon in Wisconsin, the final syllable is pronounced like the word on. Other examples include local pronunciations of Cairo, Georgia; Versailles, Kentucky; and Milan, Tennessee—compared to the more well-known Cairo, Versailles, and Milan—or the difference between the pronunciation of Louisville, Kentucky (/ˈluːəvəl/) and the town of Louisville, New York (/ˈluːɪsvɪl/).

There are also pairs which ignore case and include both initialisms and regular words, e.g., US and us.

Heteronyms can also occur in non-alphabetic languages. For example, the Chinese character 行 can be pronounced háng, meaning "profession", or xíng, meaning "OK".

Examples

Heteronymns with definitions

English

In some of these cases, American and British English pronunciations differ.

For a longer list, see wikt:Category:English heteronyms.

Examples of heteronyms in English
Spelling Pronun. PoS Meaning
abstract /ˈæbstrækt/ a. existing in thought or as an idea but not having a physical or concrete existence
/æbˈstrækt/ v. consider (something) theoretically or separately from something else
abuse /əˈbjuːs/ n. improper treatment
/əˈbjuːz/ v. to use improperly
address AmE and BrE /əˈdrɛs/ v. to speak to (address) the crowd
AmE /ˈædrɛs/ BrE /əˈdrɛs/ n. a postal address
advocate /ˈædvəkeɪt/ v. to argue for someone else
/ˈædvəkɪt/ n. a person who speaks in support of something
affect /əˈfɛkt/ v. to have an effect on
/ˈæfɛkt/ n. mood, emotional state
agape /əˈɡeɪp/ adv. open wide
/ˈæɡəpiː/, /əˈɡɑːpeɪ/ n. altruistic, beneficial love
allied /əˈlaɪd/ v. They allied themselves with the French.
/ˈælaɪd/ a. The Treaty of Vienna had bound the Allied Powers to make war together upon Napoleon.
alternate /ˈɔːltərnət/ or /ɔːlˈtərnət/ adj. other
/ˈɔːltərneɪt/ v. to take turns
alum /ˈæləm/ n. (or v.) a type of astringent salt (or to chemically impregnate with that salt)
/əˈlʌm/ n. a past attendee or graduate (of either gender) of an educational institution
analyses /əˈnælɪsiːz/ n. plural of analysis
/ˈænəlaɪzəz/ v. third person singular present of analyse
appropriate /əˈproʊpriət/ adj. suitable
/əˈproʊprieɪt/ v. to set apart for
attribute /ˈætrɪbjuːt/ n. a characteristic
/əˈtrɪbjuːt/ v. to associate ownership
articulate /ɑːrˈtɪkjʊleɪt/ v. "The tourists are the ones who always try to articulate every syllable when they speak the language."
/ɑːrˈtɪkjʊlɪt/ a. "In one decade, the image of youth went from radicals uttering rage-filled rhetoric to the much less articulate valley girl or surfer wannabe."
august/August /ɔːˈɡʌst, ə-/ adj. awe-inspiring, majestic, noble, venerable
/ˈɔː.ɡəst/ n. the eighth month of the Roman, Julian, and Gregorian calendars
axes /ˈæksiːz/ n. pl. of axis
/ˈæksɪz/ n. pl. of axe
ay/aye /ˈaɪ/ . adv. He voted aye on the legislation he had sponsored
/ˈeɪ/ adv. They vowed their undying love for aye.
bases /ˈbeɪsɪz/ n. plural of base
/ˈbeɪsiːz/ n. plural of basis
bass /ˈbeɪs/ n. low in pitch
/ˈbæs/ n. a fish
blessed /ˈblɛsɪd/ adj. having divine aid
/ˈblɛst/ v. past tense of bless
bow /ˈboʊ/ n. a stringed weapon, or the initiator of sound in some stringed musical instruments.
n. an object that you clip or tie on to your hair to keep it from falling into your face
/ˈbaʊ/ v. to bend in respect
n. the front of a boat or ship
buffet /bəˈfeɪ/ ~ /ˈbʊfeɪ/ n. sideboard meal
/ˈbʌfɪt/ v. to strike
close /ˈkloʊz/ v. to shut
/ˈkloʊs/ adj. nearby
combine /ˈkɒmbaɪn/ n. A farm machine that harvests and threshes
/kəmˈbaɪn/ v. To bring two or more things together, mix
compact /kəmˈpækt/ v. to compress
/ˈkɒmpækt/ adj. small
complex /ˈkɒmplɛks/ n. A collection of buildings with a common purpose, such as a university or military base
/kəmˈplɛks/, /ˈkɒmplɛks/ adj. Made up of multiple parts
compound /ˈkɒmpaʊnd/ n. A substance having definite proportions of elements
/kəmˈpaʊnd/ v. To make a situation worse
concert /ˈkɒnsərt/ n. We saw the band in concert.
/kənˈsɜːrt/ v. We had to concert all our energy to stay awake.
conduct /ˈkɒndəkt/ n. action
/kənˈdʌkt/ v. to lead
confines /ˈkɒnfaɪnz/ n. pl. Work within the confines of the contract.
/kənˈfaɪnz/ v. But the contract confines my creativity!
conflict /ˈkɒnflɪkt/ n. The mother said to her belligerent son, "Violence is no way to resolve conflict!"
/kənˈflɪkt/ v. The two news reports seem to conflict with each other.
console /kənˈsoʊl/ v. provide comfort from grief
/ˈkɒnsoʊl/ n. control unit
content /ˈkɒntɪnt/ n. information
/kənˈtɛnt/ adj. satisfied
contract /ˈkɒntrækt/ n. The contract was supposed to expire seven years after it was signed.
/kənˈtrækt/ v. Derek firmly stated that he would rather contract pneumonia and die than stand outside wearing that ridiculous pink and green poncho.
convict /kənˈvɪkt/ v. to find guilty
/ˈkɒnvɪkt/ n. one convicted
crooked /ˈkrʊkt/ v. I crooked my arm to show the sleeve.
/ˈkrʊkɪd/ a. Unfortunately, that just made the sleeve look crooked.
decrease /dɪˈkriːs/ v. To lessen
/ˈdiːkriːs/ n. A diminution
defense /dɪˈfɛns/ n. The attorney gave a strong defense.
/ˈdiːˈfɛns/ n. The coach put out his best defense. (dialectal, used in sports contexts)
desert /ˈdɛzərt/ n. an arid region
/dɪˈzɜːrt/ v. to abandon
discard /ˈdɪskɑːrd/ n. Toss it in the discard pile.
/dɪsˈkɑːrd/ v. But I don't want to discard it!
do /ˈduː/, /də/ v. What do you think you are doing?
/ˈdoʊ/ n. To warm-up, the singer sang the scale from do.
does /ˈdoʊz/ n. pl. of doe
/ˈdʌz/ v. form of do
/ˈduːz/ n. one spelling of the plural of do as a noun - e.g. hair does
dogged /ˈdɒɡd/ v. At night proctors patrolled the street and dogged your steps if you tried to go into any haunt where the presence of vice was suspected. (Samuel Butler, The Way of All Flesh)
/ˈdɒɡɪd/ a. Still, the dogged obstinacy of his race held him to the pace he had set, and would hold him till he dropped in his tracks. (Jack London, The Son of the Wolf)
dove /ˈdʌv/ n. a bird
/ˈdoʊv/ v. Mainly American past tense of dive
ellipses /ɪˈlɪpsɪz/ n. Plural of ellipse
/ɪˈlɪpsiːz/ n. Plural of ellipsis
entrance /ˈɛntrəns/ n. doorway
/ɛnˈtræns/ v. to delight
exploit /ˈɛksplɔɪt/ n. a heroic or extraordinary deed
/ɛksˈplɔɪt/ v. to make use of or take advantage of
house /ˈhaʊs/ n. a residential building
/ˈhaʊz/ v. to place in residence
incense /ˈɪnsɛns/ n. Dad, I bought this incense at the temple.
/ɪnˈsɛns/ v. Big mistake. If you burn it here, you'll incense your mother.
increase /ɪn-ˈkriːs/ v. To get greater
/ˈɪn-kriːs/ n. An augmentation
intimate /ˈɪntɪmeɪt/ v. to suggest
/ˈɪntɪmət/ adj. very close
invalid /ɪnˈvælɪd/ adj. incorrect
/ˈɪnvəlɪd/ n. a disabled person
laminate /ˈlæmɪneɪt/ v. to assemble from thin sheets glued together
/ˈlæmɪnɪt/ n. material formed of thin sheets glued together
lead /ˈliːd/ v. to guide
/ˈlɛd/ n. a metal
learned /ˈlɜːrnɪd/ adj. having much learning
/ˈlɜːrnd/ v. past tense of learn
lima/Lima /ˈlaɪmə/ n. or attributive A vegetable
/ˈliːmə/ pn. The capital city of Peru
/ˈlaɪmə/ pn. A city in Ohio, United States
live /ˈlɪv/ v. to be alive
/ˈlaɪv/ adj. having life
merchandise /ˈmɜːrtʃəndaɪs/ n. goods available for sale
/ˈmɜːrtʃəndaɪz/ v. to make (something) available for sale
minute /maɪˈnjuːt/ adj. small
/ˈmɪnət/ n. unit of time
mobile/Mobile AmE /ˈmoʊbiːl/, BrE /ˈmoʊbaɪl/ n. The baby sat in awe at the bright colors on the mobile.
AmE /ˈmoʊbəl/, BrE /ˈmoʊbaɪl/ a. Although most animals are mobile, the sponge is sessile.
/moʊˈbiːl/ pn. A city in Alabama
moped /ˈmoʊpɛd/ n. a small motorcycle
/ˈmoʊpt/ v. past tense of mope
mow /ˈmaʊ/ n. a stack of hay, or the part of a barn where hay is stored
/ˈmoʊ/ v. To cut something (especially grass or crops) down or knock down
multiply /ˈmʌltɪplaɪ/ v. to increase
/ˈmʌltɪpli/ adv. in multiple ways
number /ˈnʌmbər/ n. a numeral
/ˈnʌmər/ adj. more numb
object /ˈɒbdʒɪkt/ n. a thing
/əbˈdʒɛkt/ v. to protest
overall /oʊvərˈɔːl/ a. Overall, we didn't do too badly.
/ˈoʊvərɔːl/ n. I need new overalls.
periodic /pɪəriˈɒdɪk/ a. Temperature shows periodic variation.
/pɜːrˈaɪɒdɪk/ a. Periodic acid is an oxoacid of iodine.
polish/Polish /ˈpɒlɪʃ/ v. to shine
/ˈpoʊlɪʃ/ adj. of, from, or native to Poland
present /prɪˈzɛnt/ v. to reveal
/ˈprɛzənt/ n. a gift
n. the current moment (e.g. At present)
adj. existing in the immediate vicinity (e.g. Santa is present.)
primer AmE /ˈprɪmər/, BrE /ˈpraɪmər/ n. Book that covers the basic elements of a subject
/ˈpraɪmər/ n. An undercoat of paint
proceeds /ˈproʊsiːdz/ n. Revenue
/prəˈsiːdz/ v. Third person singular of the verb "proceed"
produce /proʊˈdjuːs/ v. to make
/ˈproʊdjuːs/ n. fruit and vegetables
progress /prəˈɡrɛs/ v. I hope things will progress faster.
/ˈprɑɡrɛs/ n. I haven't made any progress.
project /ˈprɒdʒɪkt/ n. an undertaking
/proʊˈdʒɛkt/ v. to cast an image
putting /ˈpʊtɪŋ/ v. pr. part. of to put
/ˈpʌtɪŋ/ v. pr. part. of to putt
ragged /ˈræɡd/ v. She ragged on me about my ragged jeans.
/ˈræɡɪd/ a. But my ragged jeans are my trademark, I responded.
read /ˈriːd/ v. present tense
/ˈrɛd/ v. past tense
rebel /rɪˈbɛl/ v. to resist
/ˈrɛbəl/ n. one who rebels
record /ˈrɛkərd/ n. physical information
/rɪˈkɔːrd/ v. to make a record
recreate /ˈrɛkrieɪt/ v. to relax by leisure activity
/ˌriːkriˈeɪt/ v. to give new life or create again (some style guides specify a hyphen for this sense, to increase clarity: re-create)
refuse /ˈrɛfjuːs/ n. garbage
/rɪˈfjuːz/ v. to decline
resign /rɪˈzaɪn/ v. to quit
/riːˈsaɪn/ v. to sign again; re-sign
resume /rɪˈzjuːm/ v. to start again
/ˈrɛzjʊmeɪ/ n. curriculum vitae (sometimes distinguished with acute accents; résumé)
retreat /riˈtriːt/ v. to fall back from a battle front
/ˌriːˈtriːt/ v. to treat again (some style guides specify a hyphen for this sense, to increase clarity: re-treat)
root /ˈruːt/ or /ˈrʊt/) n. The tree's root was rotted.
/ˈruːt/ v. A pig can be trained to root for mushrooms.
row /ˈroʊ/ n.; v. a line; to paddle a boat
/ˈraʊ/ n. an argument
sake /ˈseɪk/ n. benefit
/ˈsɑːkiː/ n. rice wine
second /ˈsɛkənd/ adj., n., v. ordinal of "two", 1/60 of a minute, to endorse a motion
/səˈkɒnd/ v. to transfer temporarily to an alternative employment
separate /ˈsɛprɪt/ a. This should be divided into packets of ten cartridges each, which should be rolled up in flannel and hermetically sealed in separate tin canisters. (Samuel W. Baker, The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia)
/ˈsɛpəreɪt/ v. To stalk these wary antelopes I was obliged to separate from my party, who continued on their direct route. (Samuel W. Baker, The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia)
sewer /ˈsjuːər/ n. drainage pipes
/ˈsoʊ.ər/ n. one who sews
shower /ˈʃaʊ.ər/ n. precipitation
/ˈʃoʊ.ər/ n. one who shows
sin/Sin /ˈsɪn/ n. a moral error
/ˈsaɪn/ n. abbrev. for sine
/ˈsiːn/ n. Sumerian god of the moon
sow /ˈsoʊ/ v. to plant seeds
/ˈsaʊ/ n. a mature female in the swine species
subject /ˈsʌbdʒɪkt/ n. a topic
/səbˈdʒɛkt/ v. to cause to undergo
supposed /səˈpoʊz(ɪ)d/ adj. being assumed to be
/səˈpoʊst/ v. obliged to do
/səˈpoʊzd/ v. past sense of suppose
tear /ˈtɪər/ n. liquid produced by crying
/ˈtɛər/ v. , n. to separate
tier /ˈtɪər/ n. Our seats are in the third tier of the stadium.
/ˈtaɪ.ər/ n. Will the tier be around to make these knots?
transfer /ˈtrænsfər/ n. a movement of something from one place to another
/trænsˈfɜːr/ v. to move something from one place to another (the verb can be accented on either syllable)
use /ˈjuːs/ n. function, benefit
/ˈjuːz/ v. employ, utilize
unionized /ˈjuːniənaɪzd/ adj. formed into a union
/ʌnˈaɪənaɪzd/ adj. not ionized (some style guides specify a hyphen for this sense, to increase clarity: un-ionized)
whoop /ˈhwʊp/ v. Pa says he's gonna whoop you good if you don't learn some manners!
/ˈhwuːp/ v. When they scored a goal, he began to whoop and holler.
wicked /ˈwɪkɪd/ adj. bad, evil
/ˈwɪkt/ v. past tense of wick (e.g. to wick away some liquid)
wind /ˈwɪnd/ n. air movement
/ˈwaɪnd/ v. to tighten a spring
wound /ˈwaʊnd/ v. past tense of wind
/ˈwuːnd/ n. , v. an injury

French

In French, most heteronyms result from certain endings being pronounced differently in verbs and nouns. In particular, the third person plural verb ending -ent is silent.

Examples of heteronyms in French
Spelling Pronun. PoS Meaning
affluent [afly] v. they pour in
[aflyɑ̃] n. a tributary of a river
as [ɑ] v. you have
[ɑs] n. an ace
bout [bu] n. length
[but] n. rope (in nautical usage)
content [kɔ̃t] v. they recount
[kɔ̃tɑ̃] adj. happy
convient [kɔ̃vi] v. they invite
[kɔ̃vjɛ̃] v. it is suitable
couvent [cuv] v. they brood (eggs)
[cuvɑ̃] n. a convent
éditions [editjɔ̃] v. we edited
[edisjɔ̃] n. publications
est [ɛ] v. he/she is
[ɛst] n. the East
excellent [ɛksɛl] v. they excel
[ɛksɛlɑ̃] adj. excellent
expédient [ekspedi] v. they send
[ekspedjɑ̃] n. an expedient
fier [fje] v. to trust
[fjɛʁ] adj. proud
fils [fis] n. son, sons
[fil] n. wires
négligent [neɡliʒ] v. they neglect
[neɡliʒɑ̃] adj. negligent
objections [obʒektjɔ̃] v. we objected
[obʒeksjɔ̃] n. objections
oignons [wa.ɲɔ̃] v. we anoint
[ɔ.ɲɔ̃] n. onions
parent [pa.ʁ] v. they adorn
[pa.ʁɑ̃] n. parent
portions [portjɔ̃] v. we carried
[porsjɔ̃] n. portions
relations [ʁəlatjɔ̃] v. we recounted
[ʁəlasjɔ̃] n. relations
résident [ʁezid] v. they reside
[ʁe.zi.dɑ̃] n. resident
violent [vjɔl] v. they violate
[vjɔlɑ̃] adj. violent
vis [vi] v. I live, I saw (passé simple)
[vis] n. screw, screws

Modern Greek

Modern Greek spelling is largely unambiguous, but there are a few cases where a word has distinct learned and vernacular meaning and pronunciation, despite having the same root, and where <ia> is pronounced /ja/ vs. /i.a/;[1][2] there are also a few cases where the different readings of <μπ> and <ντ> give different words.[3] Some of these distinctions are being neutralized in modern speech.[4]

Examples of heteronyms in Greek
Spelling Pronun. PoS Meaning
άδεια [aðja] adj. empty
[aðji.a] n. leave, day off
βεντέτα [ven'deta] n. vendetta
[ve'deta] n. star (artist)
βιάζω [vjazo] v. I hasten
[vi.azo] v. I rape
καμπάνα [kam'bana] n. bell
[ka'bana] n. cabana
λόγια ['loʝa] n. words
['loɣi.a] adj. learnèd

Italian

Italian spelling is largely unambiguous, with a few exceptions:

  • open and closed <e> and <o> are not distinguished;
  • the voiced and unvoiced pronunciations of <z> are not distinguished;
  • stress is not marked except when it is on the final syllable.

When stress is on the final, the vowel is written with an accent: mori 'mulberries' and morì 'he/she died'. Some monosyllabic words are also differentiated with an accent:e /e/ 'and' and è /ɛ/ 'he/she is'. These cases are not heteronyms.

Some common cases:[5]

Pronunciations are shown using standard Italian orthography with the diacritic <´> for closed vowels <é> /e/ and <ó> /o/; and the diacritic <`> for closed vowels <è> /ɛ/ and <ò> /ɔ/.
Examples of heteronyms in Italian
Spelling Pronun. PoS Meaning
affetto affètto n. affection
affétto v. I slice
ambito àmbito n. scope
ambìto adj. coveted
arena arèna n. arena
aréna n. sand
botte bòtte n. attacks, blows
bótte n. barrel
collega collèga n. colleague
colléga v. he/she connects
compito cómpito n. task
compìto adj. polite,completed
corresse corrèsse v. he/she corrected (correggere)
corrésse v. he/she ran (subj.) (correre)
credo crèdo n. creed
crédo v. I believe
colto còlto v. gathered (participle)
cólto adj. cultivated
corso còrso n. a Corsican
córso n. a course
córso v. run (participle)
cupido cùpido adj. covetous
cupìdo n. Cupid
esca èsca v. he/she exits
ésca n. bait
esse èsse n. the letter S
ésse pron. they (f.)
foro fòro n. forum, court
fóro n. a hole
fosse fòsse n. pits
fósse v. were (imperfect subj.)
indotto indòtto adj. ignorant
indótto v. induced (participle)
legge lègge v. he/she reads
légge n. law
mento mènto v. I lie
ménto n. chin
messe mèsse n. harvest
mésse n. religious mass
nocciolo nòcciolo n. kernel
nocciòlo n. hazelnut tree
pesca pèsca n. peach
pésca n. fishing
pésca v. he/she fishes
peste pèste n. plague
péste adj. crushed (f.pl.)
péste n. footprints
principi prìncipi n. princes
princìpi n. principles
razza /'rattsa/ n. race, breed
/'raddzsa/ n. ray, skate
re rè n. re (music)
ré n. king
retina rètina n. retina
retìna n. small net
scopo scòpo n. goal
scópo v. I sweep
Sofia Sòfia n. Sofia (Bulgaria)
Sofìa n. Sofia (name)
sorta sòrta n. kind
sórta v. I rose
te tè n. tea
té pron. you
tema tèma n. theme, subject
téma n. fear
torta tòrta adj. twisted (f. sing.)
tórta n. a torte
venti vènti n. winds
vénti n. twenty
volgo vòlgo v. I turn
vólgo n. the people
volto vòlto v. turned (participle)
vólto n. face

Dutch

Dutch has heteronyms which vary in stress position, known as klemtoonhomogramen 'stress homograms', such as appel: /ˈɑpəl/ 'apple' vs. /ɑˈpɛl/ 'appeal' (formerly written appèl). Other examples include beamen, bedelen, hockeyster, kantelen, misdadiger, overweg, verspringen, verwerpen.

The word plant is generally pronounced /plɑnt/, but may be pronounced /plɛnt/ in the sense 'he/she plans'.

German

German has few heteronyms, for example:[6]

  • Some vary in stress position: umfahren 'to knock down' vs. 'to bypass'; ubersetzen 'to translate' vs. 'to traverse'; Spiegelei 'fried egg' vs. 'mirroring'.
  • Some are compounded differently: Staubecken as Stau-becken vs. Staub-Ecken; etc.
  • Several are borrowings: modern 'moldiness' (derived from Moder) vs. 'modern' (borrowed from French).

See also

Notes
  1. David Holton, Peter Mackridge, Irene Philippaki-Warburton, Vassilios Spyropoulos, Greek: A Comprehensive Grammar of the Modern Language, 2nd edition, 2012, ISBN 1136626387, p. 11
  2. Nick Nicholas, answer to "In modern Greek, are there any two words with different spellings but with exactly the same pronunciation? Also, is there any single spelling which has two different pronunciations?", Quora.com, May 23, 2019
  3. Demetrios E. Lekkas, comment to cited Nick Nicholas Quora answer
  4. Nick Nicholas, "The hiatus of διαζύγιο 'divorce'", Ἡλληνιστεύκοντος: Set Union of Greek and Linguistics (blog), January 5, 2011
  5. John J. Kinder, Vincenzo M. Savini, Using Italian: A Guide to Contemporary Usage, 2004, ISBN 0521485568, p. 83-87
  6. Tatjana Lackner, "Homographe", Die Schule des Sprechens, January 12, 2018,
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