Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor

Christoph Simon von Thun (1582-1635), teacher of young Ferdinand III

Portrait of Ferdinand's wife Maria Anna of Austria, by Diego Velázquez

Ferdinand was born in Graz, the eldest son of Emperor Ferdinand II of Habsburg and his first wife, Maria Anna of Bavaria, and was baptised as Ferdinand Ernst. He grew up in Carinthia with loving care from his parents and he developed great affection for his siblings and his father, with whom he always found a consensus in future disagreements. At his father's court he received religious and scholarly training from Jesuits. The Maltese knights Johann Jacob von Dhaun (member of the Lower Austrian estate, a union of the local nobility) and Christoph Simon von Thun (Head of Ferdinands imperial court and household) had greatly influenced the education of the young Archduke.[6] Simon von Thun instructed Ferdinand in military matters. Ferdinand is said to have spoken several languages, although how many and to which degree is unclear. After the deaths of his brothers Karl (1603) and Johann Karl (1619), he was designated as his father's successor and systematically prepared to take over the reign. Like his father, he was a devout Catholic, yet he had a certain aversion to the influence of the Jesuits who had ruled his father's court.

Ferdinand became Archduke of Austria in 1621. On December 8, 1625 he was crowned King of Hungary, on November 27, 1627 King of Bohemia. His father was unable to secure him the election as Roman king at the Regensburg diet of 1630. After he had unsuccessfully applied for the supreme command of the imperial army and participation in campaigns of Wallenstein, he joined Wallenstein's opponents at the imperial court in Vienna and had been involved in the arrangements on his second deposition in the beginning of 1634.[3]

In 1627 Ferdinand enhanced his authority and set an important legal and military precedent by issuing a Revised Land Ordinance that deprived the Bohemian estates of their right to raise soldiers, reserving this power solely for the monarch.[7]

In 1631, after years of negotiations with Spanish relatives, he married the Spanish Infante, his cousin Maria Anna of Spain. Although in the middle of the war, this elaborate wedding was celebrated over a period of fourteen months. The marriage produced six children, including his successors, Ferdinand IV of Hungary and Emperor Leopold I. His loving and intelligent wife and her brother, the Spanish Cardinal Infant Ferdinand, had great influence on Ferdinand and formed the most important link between the Habsburg courts in Madrid, Brussels and Vienna in the difficult period of the 30-year war for Habsburg after the death of Wallenstein.[7]

After Wallenstein's assassination, Ferdinand III took command of the imperial army on May 2, 1634 supported by the generals Gallas and Piccolomini, the military adviser, Johann Kaspar von Stadion and the political adviser Obersthofmeister Imperial Count Maximilian von und zu Trauttmansdorff. He achieved his first major military successes in July 1634 during the Actions for Regensburg by regaining the city of Regensburg, which had been captured and occupied by the Swedes since November 1633. In August 1634 the city of Donauwörth was recaptured, which had been occupied by Sweden since April 1632. In September 1634 these successes were surpassed by the decisive victory in the Battle of Nördlingen (1634), a joint effort with the help of the Spanish forces under Cardinal Infant Ferdinand. [8]

As a consequence, the Swedes lost control over Southern Germany and retreated to the North and Ferdinand gained wider political influence, even if his personal contribution in Nördlingen was rather limited. His influence increased further after the fall of the powerful imperial minister Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg, who had domineered the politics of Ferdinand II. Ferdinand III later appointed his brother Archduke Leopold Wilhelm as supreme commander, which proved to be a mistake, with regards to the many defeats that followed. Even after the resignation of the supreme command, Ferdinand continued to occupy himself with theoretical military issues. Raimondo Montecuccoli later dedicated one of his works to him. In 1635 Ferdinand worked as imperial commissioner in the negotiations for the Peace of Prague (1635), as he tried to persuade the prince electors to adopt the idea of concerted warfare. He also advocated the inclusion of the still reluctant Protestant estates into the peace process.[4][3][9][8]

Population decline in the empire as a consequence of the Thirty Years War

Ferdinand III was elected King of the Romans at the Diet of Regensburg on December 22, 1636. Upon the death of his father on February 15, 1637, Ferdinand became emperor. His political adviser Obersthofmeister (Lord Chamberlain) Maximilian von und zu Trauttmansdorff advanced to the position of Prime Minister of Austria and Chief diplomat, but was replaced by Johann Ludwig von Nassau-Hadamar in 1647 as his health had begun to deteriorate. Obersthofmeister (Lord Chamberlain) and Prime Minister of Austria (1665-1669) Johann Weikhard of Auersperg and former teacher of the royal heir Ferdinand IV received the fief of the Duchy of Münsterberg for his former services. Unlike his father, Ferdinand III employed no spiritual counsellor.[10]

By the time Ferdinand became emperor, vast sections of the imperial territories had been absolutely devastated by two decades of war. The population was completely exhausted and massively diminished, countless people were impoverished, disabled, sick, homeless, many had lost their families and had abandoned all moral standards. Ferdinand did not endeavour to continue the war. But the momentum of the war, the political circumstances and his reluctance to act prevented a quick end to the war.[11] Any hope to make early peace with France and Sweden did not materialize.[12]

When the war flared up again after the intervention of France in 1635, the military situation of the emperor became increasingly precarious. In 1638, 1643 and 1645, the city of Vienna was threatened by Swedish troops. After the devastating defeat at the Battle of Jankau on March 6, 1645, it became apparent that the emperor was practically defenseless. The Habsburgs could no longer win the war without the support of the Spanish allies. Due to domestic difficulties, financial and military Spanish support for Ferdinand was completely stopped in 1645. Without foreign military funds, the imperial troops were incapable of progressive operation, which weakened Ferdinand's position in negotiations.[8]

An Imperial Diet was arranged for 1641 in Regensburg, where the estates discussed possible peace arrangements. It turned out to be problematic that the emperor had excluded princes, who had previously been on the opposing side, as well as the Protestant administrators of various princes of the Imperial Diet. After all, it finally succeeded in agreeing all imperial estates with the exception of the Electoral Palatinate, the Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg and Hesse-Kassel to the resolutions of the Diet. In 1641, a preliminary peace was signed in Hamburg between Ferdinand, Spain, France and Sweden and a final peace congress was to convene in Osnabrück and Münster. An alliance between Sweden and France was fully effective since 1642. The Swedes won the Battle of Breitenfeld in 1642. One year later Ferdinand was forced to conclude an armistice with Sweden, while France advanced into the Spanish Netherlands.[13][14]

Emperor Ferdinand III amongst the electoral princes, Copperplate engraving by Abraham Aubry, Nuremberg 1663/64

Negotiations for a peace agreement began in 1644 in Münster and Osnabrück and lasted until 1648. Warfare continued during these four years and the empire suffered even greater devastations than in the previous 26 years of the war.

The negotiations in Westphalia turned out to be difficult, beginning with a dispute over the rules of procedure. The emperor had to give in to pressure from France and Sweden and admit all imperial estates to the congress and receive the ius belli ac pacis. In addition to peace between the parties involved, the internal constitution of the empire was also newly regulated. The Imperial Court received weekly reports on the negotiations. Even though the reports had been produced by officials, the process also proved to be an extremely busy time for the emperor, as despite all the advisers, he had to make the decisions. The study of the documents suggests, that Ferdinand was a monarch with expertise with a sense of responsibility and the willingness to make difficult decisions. In the course of the negotiations, Ferdinand had to reconsider his original goals according to the deteriorating military situation. His advisor Maximilian von und zu Trauttmansdorff suggested a great battle to end the war favourably.[15]

The emperor personally took part in the campaign against the Swedes, that ended with a defeat at the Battle of Jankau on March 6, 1645. The Swedish army under Lennart Torstensson then advanced to Vienna. To raise morale in the city, the emperor circled the city in a large procession with an image of the Virgin Mary. As the Swedish army drew closer, Ferdinand left the city. Archduke Leopold Wilhelm managed to drive off the opponents. At times Ferdinand managed to get Prince George I Rákóczi of Transylvania, an ally of France and Sweden, on his side. In the 1645 Peace of Linz the Emperor had to guarantee the Hungarian estates the right of imperial representation and freedom of religion for the Protestants, which prevented the Counter-reformation and future Absolutist rule in Hungary.[3][16]

The emperor reissued the instructions for the peace talks for Trautmannsdorf, who left for Westphalia as chief negotiator. These documents were kept strictly secret and were only published in 1962. Reviews revealed, that Ferdinand surrendered numerous previous claims and was ready for greater concessions than were ultimately necessary.[17]

After 1648 the emperor was engaged in carrying out the terms of the treaty and ridding Germany of the foreign soldiery. In 1656 he sent an army into Italy to assist Spain in her struggle with France, and he had just concluded an alliance with Poland to check the aggressions of Charles X of Sweden when he died on 2 April 1657.[18]

Peace of Westphalia, Ratification of the Treaty of Münster, 15 May 1648

The empire suffered considerable territorial losses. Among several estates, various Hochstifts (territory ruled by a princely bishop) on the left bank of the Rhine and other areas were finally lost to France. Sweden received Rügen and Pomerania as well as the bishoprics of Bremen, Verden and Wismar. The Netherlands and Switzerland gained complete independence from the empire. The Habsburg hereditary lands themselves were also affected, as the Lausitz was lost to Saxony and Upper Rhine areas such as the Sundgau and Breisach to France. Further transfers of property took place in various regions of the empire. Bavaria retained its electoral dignity it had at the beginning of the war, a further - eighth - electoral estate was created in the Palatinate.

The implementation of the Counter-Reformation in the core countries of Ferdinand was sanctioned. Only in some parts of Silesia were certain concessions made to the Protestants. From now on, the institutions of the empire should be equally occupied by Catholics and Protestants. The imperial estates were able to enforce considerable rights. This included the right to form alliances with foreign powers, even if they were not allowed to be directed against the emperor and the empire. The largest territories benefited most from these regulations. Ferdinand's attempt to absolutist rule of the Reich failed, although the empire and the imperial office remained significant.[19]

The emperor considered the peace agreement to be no catastrophic defeat and thanks to Trautmannsdorff's negotiating skills worse could be prevented. As a matter of fact the consequences for the Austrian hereditary countries were comparatively favorable. So the expropriations in Bohemia and the Verneuerte Landesordnung (Renewed Regional Order) of 1627 remained untouched. Upper Austria, formerly attached to Bavaria, was returned to Habsburg house rule.[19][20]

Despite many losses, the constitutional position of the emperor after the Peace of Westphalia permitted an active imperial policy in cooperation with parts of the estates. In the Habsburg monarchy the prerequisites for the development of a uniform absolutist state remained intact. Thus, imperial policies of the peace negotiations succeeded in this respect - despite the failure to meet some of the original negotiation goals.[21][22]

At the Nuremberg Peace congress of 1649/1650, the final withdrawal of foreign troops and the political settlement of the relationship with Sweden and France were settled during which hostilities nearly started again.

The Empress Maria Anna of Spain had died giving birth to her last child on May 13, 1646. Ferdinand remarried to another first cousin, Maria Leopoldine of Austria (1632-1649) on July 2, 1648. The wedding ceremony, held in Linz, was notably splendid.[23] This marriage however lasted little more than a year, ending with Maria Leopoldine's own premature death in childbirth.

Ferdinand's last marriage was to Eleonora Magdalena Gonzaga of Mantua-Nevers in 1651. Empress Eleonora was very pious and donated, among other things, for the Ursuline monastery in Vienna and the Order of the Starry Cross for noble women. She was also well educated and interested in art. She also composed music and wrote poetry and together with Ferdinand was the centre of the Italian academy.[19]

Ferdinand's sovereign power in the Austrian hereditary lands, as well his royal power in Hungary and Bohemia was significantly greater than that of his predecessor before 1618. Princely power was strengthened, while the influence of the estates was massively reduced. The church reform towards the Counter-reformation continued. Ferdinand was able to form a standing army from the remains of the imperial army, that was soon to show great effectiveness under Ferdinand's successor Leopold I. Under Ferdinand the fortifications of Vienna were massively expanded and updated as the emperor invested a total sum of over 80,000 fl.[24][25]

Despite a considerable loss of authority in the empire, Ferdinand remained active in imperial politics. He would also re-establish his positions in the empire's institutions. Ferdinand had the Aulic Council restructured, which competed with the Imperial Chamber Court and had already been recognized in the Peace of Westphalia. It remained in effect until 1806. In late 1652 he summoned a Reichstag in Regensburg, which lasted until 1654. The event was the last traditional imperial diet and was replaced by the future Perpetual Reichstag with its permanent congress of emissaries. The Reichstag decided that the content of the peace treaties in Münster and Osnabrück under Reich law should become part of the Reich constitution.[26]

The emperor managed to postpone some of the constitutional questions that were particularly dangerous for his power. The fact that some of the nobles raised by his father to the rank of prince gained a seat and vote in the Reichstag also speaks for his growing strength. At this Reichstag he also made an alliance with Poland against Sweden. The empire came to Poland's support during the Second Northern War. Ferdinand also brought about the royal election of his son Ferdinand IV, who, however died in 1654. He unsuccessfully attempted to enforce the election of Leopold as King of the Romans. After all, Leopold was crowned King of Hungary and Bohemia.[27]