Donald Cameron of Lochiel

In the decades following the failed 1719 Rising, Highland society and economy became more integrated with the outside world but remained one of the poorest areas of Europe.[5] Poverty was particularly marked in the Western Isles and Lochaber, made worse by fines imposed after the 1715 Rising; this led to abuses such as the sale of tenants into indentured servitude by MacDonald of Sleat and Norman MacLeod.[6]

Highland chiefs traditionally rented land to tacksmen, often relatives, who provided men for military service as part of their rent. However, the military aspects of clanship had been in decline for many years, the last significant inter-clan battle being Maol Ruadh in August 1688 which meant paying for a capacity that was rarely used.[7] In 1737, the Duke of Argyll abolished the tacksman role, instead renting lands to the highest bidder.[8] Lochiel allegedly wished to do the same but was prevented from doing so by James Stuart, the Old Pretender, who wished to retain this military capability.[9]

The military road near Corrieyairack Pass; built after 1725, these extended government control into the Highlands and reduced the power of clan chiefs like Lochiel

One lesson learned by the central government after the failed 1719 Rising was their continuing reliance on clan chiefs to control the Highlands. To offset this, between 1725 to 1738, George Wade built a network of military roads, connecting garrisons at Fort Augustus, Ruthven Barracks and Fort William, first built by Cromwell in 1654 to control Cameron lands in Lochaber.[10] These reduced the power of Jacobite chiefs like Lochiel, Glengarry, Clanranald, Keppoch and Appin; combined with their dire financial position, by 1743 they were reportedly faced with "selling their land or conforming."[11]

Largely dormant since 1719, Stuart prospects revived in 1740 when the War of the Austrian Succession placed Britain against France, who sought ways to divert British resources from the key battlefield in Flanders. Lochiel and six colleagues, including his father-in-law Sir James Campbell, formed an association committing to support a Stuart restoration but only with French military backing.[12] In late 1743, Louis XV proposed a landing in England to restore the Stuarts; Prince Charles traveled to Dunkirk to join the invasion force but the plan was abandoned in March 1744 after the French fleet was severely damaged by winter storms.[13] Charles suggested an alternative landing in Scotland; in August, he met Jacobite agent Murray of Broughton in Paris, telling him he was "determined to come ...though with a single footman".[14]

Prince Charles in Highland dress, painted ca 1750

After Murray shared this with the Jacobite Buck Club, Lochiel and others signed a declaration urging Charles not to do so, unless he brought 6,000 French troops, money and weapons.[15] When Charles landed on Eriskay in July, Lochiel refused to meet him but was eventually persuaded, although his brother John Cameron of Fassefern warned emotion would prevail over his judgement. This proved correct and Lochiel's commitment persuaded others, including his cousin Macpherson of Cluny, who deserted from Loudon's Highlanders before Prestonpans. The process took over three weeks and Lochiel finally did so only when Charles gave him a personal guarantee for "the full value of his estate should the rising prove abortive," and Glengarry provided a written undertaking to raise the Macdonalds.[16]

Lochiel's decision was not a surprise to John Cameron or Duncan Forbes, senior government legal officer in Scotland. This suggests it was largely emotional, although his own account claims he did so 'after fruitless attempts to persuade [Charles] to go back where he came from.'[17] It is often claimed the government forced him into it by ordering his arrest but there is little evidence this was a factor; warrants for Lochiel, Glengarry, Clanranald and others were issued in late June, a month before Charles landed and not executed. The reluctance of the Jacobite chiefs to participate was well-known and preventive detention a commonly used means for providing sympathisers an excuse not to do so.[18]

The ability of clan chiefs to quickly mobilise large numbers of men derived from 'regalian rights' giving them wide-ranging powers over their clansmen and Lochiel's commitment obliged his tenants to take up arms. Those who did not were whipped or threatened with eviction, a process supervised by Archibald Cameron and allegedly a factor in his betrayal by Cameron clansmen when he returned to Scotland in March 1753.[19]

The Rebellion was launched at Glenfinnan on 19 August; the initial Jacobite force consisted of 900 to 1,100 men, mostly Camerons and MacDonalds, including Lochiel's nephew, Donald MacDonald of Kinlochmoidart (1705–1746). While Lochiel had no military experience, he proved a competent regimental commander and the Camerons one of the more reliable Jacobite units. His initiative was credited for the bloodless capture of Edinburgh in September, while the Camerons also fought at Prestonpans, a battle lasting less than 15 minutes. It was notable for a furious argument between Charles and Lord George Murray, the senior Scottish commander, whose fractured relationship became increasingly evident as the campaign progressed.[20]

The Camerons at Killiecrankie, 1689; throughout the Jacobite period, their cohesion gave the Camerons a military importance greater than their numbers

Prestonpans surprised both the government and Jacobites, who spent the next six weeks debating next steps. For the Irish exiles who accompanied Charles, only a Stuart on the throne of England could give them the autonomous, Catholic Ireland promised by James II & VII in 1689. For the Scots, their primary objective was to dissolve the 1707 Union; Lochiel's nickname 'Gentle' came from his insistence there be no reprisals against their opponents in Edinburgh, a sensible approach for anyone wishing to establish an independent Scotland. They had little interest in invading England and were unconvinced by Charles' personal qualities.[21]

Strategy was determined by the War Council, dominated by the West Highland chiefs who provided the bulk of the Jacobite army, including Lochiel, Keppoch, Clanranald, Glengarry and Stewart of Appin.[22] They agreed to invade England on 31 October but with deep reluctance and on condition Charles' claims to have received assurances of English and French support were forthcoming.[23] The failure of these to materialise led to the Council voting to retreat at Derby but the real damage was the admission by Charles he had lied at Edinburgh. Lochiel remained silent out of deference to Charles during the meeting but was among the overwhelming majority who approved it.[24]

The army crossed back into Scotland, entering Hamilton on 23 December; an anonymous resident later described the Camerons, Macphersons and MacDonalds as 'an undisciplined, ungovernable army of Highland robbers, who took no notice of their commanders.'[25] On 8 January, the Jacobites besieged Stirling and defeated an attempt by Henry Hawley to relieve the garrison at Falkirk on 17 January. Despite this, on 1 February they abandoned Stirling and retreated north to Inverness, while Lochiel took his regiment north to invest Fort William, still held by government troops. They abandoned the siege to rejoin the main army in time for the Battle of Culloden on 16 April; the Camerons suffered heavy losses attacking the government left, while Lochiel was severely wounded and carried off the field.[26]

Defeat ended the rising; Lochiel later claimed the Duke of Cumberland offered him and his clansmen terms if they handed in their weapons and surrendered but he rejected them.[27] In late May, he, Lord George Murray, Murray of Broughton, John Roy Stewart and others met near Loch Morar to discuss options but there was little enthusiasm for continuing the fight. Lochiel, Archibald Cameron and Charles were sheltered by Cluny until picked up by a French ship in September.[28]