Dhunge dhara

A dhunge dhara (Nepali:ढुङ्गे धारा Listen ) or hiti (Newari) is a traditional stone drinking fountain found in Nepal. It is an intricately carved stone waterway through which water flows uninterrupted from underground sources. Dhunge dharas are part of a comprehensive drinking water supply system, commissioned by various rulers of Ancient and Medieval Nepal. The system is supported by numerous ponds and canals that form an elaborate network of water bodies, created as a water resource during the dry season and to help alleviate the water pressure caused by the monsoon rains. After the introduction of modern, piped water systems, starting in the late 19th century, this old system has fallen into disrepair and some parts of it are lost forever. Nevertheless, many people of Nepal still rely on the old hitis on a daily basis.

Manga Hiti in Patan

History

The history of dhunge dharas began during the Licchavi Kingdom (c. 400-750 AD). The first known hiti was built in Kathmandu at Hadi Gaun by a grandson of Lichhavi King Mandev I in 550 AD, but there is evidence that a similar structure was built earlier than that.[1] Manga Hiti at Mangal Bazar in Patan was built in 570 AD. In both cases, the dates were engraved on a stone within the hiti. Gradually more hitis started to appear elsewhere in Kathmandu Valley.[2][3][4]

During the Malla period (c. 1201-1779 AD) many more hiti systems were built. Jitamitra Malla of Bhaktapur, Pratap Malla of Kathmandu and Siddhinarshinha Malla of Patan are famous for the water systems in these cities. The hiti built in 1829 by Queen Lalit Tripura Sundari Devi and Bhimsen Thapa at Sundhara village (now Kathmandu) is generally believed to be the last one built.[5][2][6][7]

In 2008 the dhunge dharas of Kathmandu Valley produced 2.95 million litres of water per day.[8]

Of the 389 stone spouts found in Kathmandu Valley in 2010, 233 were still in use, serving about 10% of Kathmandu’s population. 68 had gone dry and 43 were connected to the municipal water supply instead of their original source. 45 dhunge dharas were lost entirely.[9]

In 2019 a survey by the Kathmandu Valley Water Supply Management Board (KVWSMB) found a total of 573 dhunge dharas on record in the ten municipalities of the Kathmandu Valley. 479 of these were recovered, 52 turned out to be destroyed and 42 could not be found. More than half of the spouts were dry.[10]

The spouts

Dhunge dhara literally means stone spout, but some dhunge dharas are made from other materials like brass, copper, gold and wood.[2][11]

Most of the spouts have the shape of the mythical makara (also called hitimanga). This is a creature with the snout of a crocodile, the trunk of an elephant, tusks and ears of a wild boar and the tail of a peacock.[12] Hitimangas are ubiquitous in Nepal, not only on hitis, but also on vajras (ritual weapons), toranas (traditional door and window ornaments) and other architectural elements.[13][14]

  • Simple stone spout in Bhojpur District
  • Stone spouts of Manga Hiti in Patan
  • Gold spout of Nag Pokhari in Bhaktapur
  • One of 22 stone spouts of Baisdhara, Balaju
  • Stone spout of Layaku Hiti in Bhaktapur
  • Stone spout of Maru Hiti, Kathmandu
  • The 108 brass Muktidhara

Basic architecture of a hiti
Main spout of Sundhara, Kathmandu, with Garuda shrine above and Bhagiratha sculpture underneath[6]
The Chaitya at Manga Hiti is suspected to be on top of the hiti's filter system[1]
Ancient Nepalese drawing of a hiti, with emphasis on the filter system

Although the names dhunge dhara and hiti refer to the actual spouts, they are also used for the stone structures immediately surrounding the spouts.[2]

In the Nepalese countryside a hiti may be no more than a stone or brick wall with a spout protruding from it; in the cities, due to the natural flow of water (see below), the spouts are located in a basin below street level (hitigah), with the depth depending on need. This basin is built with a combination of stone and brick, where the floor is usually covered with stone slabs. The sides and bottom of the basin are made waterproof by coating them with a layer of a special type of black mud. This prevents water from the surrounding soil from seeping in.[3] Similarly a low wall around the basin helps to keep surface runoff out. The basin can be accessed via one or more stone stairs (depending on the depth and overall size).[2]

There is typically just one spout in the basin, but there are hitis with tree, five, nine or more spouts, even up to a hundred and eight (the Muktidhara in Mustang District).[2][15]

Above the spout there is usually a shrine honoring a specific deity. The space below the spout is (almost without exception) adorned with a sculpture of Bhagiratha.[2][11]

Before the water enters the spout, it passes a filter system, using gravel, sand, charcoal and sometimes lapsi (Nepali hog plum)[16].

In front of the spout there is a small pool to catch the water flowing from it. The surplus of water eventually disappears into a drain, and is guided towards another hiti, agricultural land or a pond (to be used for irrigation and other purposes).[17] Sometimes the water is first directed towards several other hitis. In the case of Washa Hiti in Patan, for example, the water is first flowing towards Amrit Hiti, then to Dathu Hiti, then to Buincha Hiti.[18]

In some hitis the water from the spout drains into a pond inside the hiti basin itself. Nag Pokhari hiti in Bhaktapur is an example of this. Just as there are hitis with a pond inside them, there are also ponds with spouts integrated into their walls. Bhandarkhal Pokhari in Patan and Salan Ganesh Pokhari in Bhaktapur are some examples.[2]

A number of hitis have an integrated drinking water reservoir (jahru, see below), which is made of stone.[2][19]

Many hitis are also closely associated with one or more dharmasalas (shelters or public resthouses). There are several types of these, for instance a pati, a mandapa or a satah. Such a shelter is either a separate building close by or connected to one of the walls of the hiti. Manga Hiti in Patan has two on either side of the stairs, for example and the main entrance of Bhimsen Hiti in Bhaktapur is through the shelter.[2][5][20][21]

  • Hiti near Panauti Temple
  • Layaku Hiti, Bhaktapur, with Hari Shankar Sattal behind it
  • Bhimsen Hiti, Bhaktapur
  • Gahiti, Changu Narayan with satah on the left
  • Lunhiti, Tapa Lachhi with pati behind it
  • Nag Pokhari hiti with pond, Bhaktapur
  • Spout and jahrus of Bhandarkhal Pokhari, Patan

Sources of the water

The early hitis use water from their own springs or from nearby aquifers, which they sometimes share with other hitis. Later, hitis were connected to a system of canals and ponds, which brought fresh water from the foothills of Kathmandu Valley to the cities.

The spouts of one hiti can have different sources for their water. In one case, Alko Hiti in Patan, three sources were confirmed during restoration, but in others the users have merely noticed a difference in taste or colour of the water between the spouts. For many hitis, the precise location of the source is still unknown.[2][7][8]

Ponds

During the Kirata Kingdom (c. 900 BC-300 AD) ponds (named pukhu or pokhari) were constructed as a source of water in the old cities of the Kathmandu Valley. The ponds got their water from rainfall.[17] During the Lichhavi regime, these ponds were linked to stone spouts and dug wells to supply water to the cities.

Some ponds were built higher in the settlements to feed the shallow aquifers; water seeps away from the ponds into the ground and eventually emerges from the spouts. These higher ponds are relatively large in size. Lainchaur Pokhari, Rani Pokhari and Ikha Pukhu in Kathmandu, Siddha Pokhari, Kamal Binayak Pukhu and Nā Pukhu in Bhaktapur and Nhu Pukhu, Paleswan Pukhu and Jyawalkhyo Pukhu in Patan are examples of such ponds. Some had their own springs, like Siddha Pokahri, Rani Pokhari in Kathmandu and Jyawalakhyo Pukhu.[1][22][23] The ponds inside the settlements are smaller. They help to increase the local groundwater levels. They are used for washing, cleaning, duck farming, bathing animals and fighting fires. In Kathmandu these ponds have disappeared completely. Tekha Pukhu is an example of such ponds in Bhaktapur. In Patan, Pimbahal Pukhu is one example. Chyasa Pukhu, Guita Pukhu and Tyagah Pukhu in Patan are some of the downstream ponds. Water from stone spouts and surface drains flows into these ponds. During the dry season, most of them become dry.[17][23][7]

Some of the ponds are interconnected; when one is filled completely, the overflow is directed towards another pond and so forth. In this way, an elaborate network of water bodies is created as a water resource during the dry season and to help alleviate the water pressure caused by the monsoon rains.[24]

At one point in time there was a total of 90 ponds in the large cities of Kathmandu Valley: 30 in Bhaktapur, 39 in Patan and 21 in Kathmandu.[25] The 2019 survey by the KVWSMB found a total of 233 ponds on record in the ten municipalities of the Kathmandu Valley.[10]

  • Siddha Pokhari, Bhaktapur
  • Washing in Khah Pukhu, Bhaktapur
  • Pimbahal Pokhari, Patan
  • Thara Pukhu, Banepa
  • Dev Pukhu, Kirtipur
  • Pond in Bungamati
  • Nag Pokhari, Kathmandu

The Royal Canals
Mahadev Pokhari

The aquifers of the stone spouts are recharged not only by rainfall but also by state canals (also called royal canals or raj kulo). State canals were built to bring water from a stream (like Lele River), spring (like Mahadev Pokhari in Nagarkot) or pond from the foothills to artificial ponds close to stone spouts to augment the aquifers.[26]

King Jitamitra Malla constructed a state canal in 1678 to feed stone spouts located in Bhaktapur and Patan.[17][27]

Eventually water was brought down into the valley's cities through three canals: Budhikanta Canal for Kathmandu, Bageswori Canal for Bhaktapur and Tikabhairav Canal for Patan. They fed 31 of the ponds in these cities, while also supplying water for irrigation along the way.[25][28][29]

Approximately half of the hitis of Bhaktapur and 51 hitis of Patan received their water from the royal canals.[2][1]

Tantric process

Many spouts in the Bhaktapur municipality are believed to receive water through Tantric power.[2][6]

According to the report "A Comparative Evaluation of Stone Spout Management Systems in Heritage and non-Heritage Areas of Kathmandu Valley, Nepal" by Mira Tripathi (2016), some of the people interviewed told her that:

When they dug out the water network they found flaming small earthen pots covered by another earthen pot as a lid... with nuts and coins above the spout. When the lid of the pot was removed the flames subsided and the water flow in the spout also stopped. ... when the lid was put back the water started to flow again. Because there were no other apparent sources for the water to enter the spouts, the Tantric or divine theories took root.

In the same report an expert from Bhaktapur is quoted as saying: "Personally, I believe tantric practice because I have seen many evidence of it..."[17]

Uses for the water
Washing in a Kathamandu hiti
Panchdhara during the Godawari Mela

The water from the hitis is used for ordinary household purposes, for work as well as for religious and cultural activities.

People of Nepal can be seen drinking and washing themselves or their laundry in a hiti, or taking the water home for washing, drinking and cooking. A number of hitis are believed to possess healing properties. Water from Sundhara in Kathmandu, for example, is believed to be good against arthritis.[6]

Man brushing his teeth at Kontihiti Kumbheswar, Patan
Baisdhara Festival

Special wooden hitis belonging to the Dhobi cast are used for the professional washing of laundry (or at least they were in 1996).[6]

Religious and cultural uses

The water is also used for the purification of images of deities.[6]

Some hitis have a role in festivals, like Bhimdhyo Hiti in Bhaktapur, Manga Hiti in Patan and Sundhara in Kathmandu.[6]

Every twelve years the Godawari Mela is celebrated for one month at the sacred pond of Godawari Kunda in Lalitpur District.[30] The 22 stone spouts in Balaju Water Garden in Kathmandu are the focal point during the yearly Balaju Baise Dhara festival. Hundreds of visitors take a ritual shower on this day to enjoy the purifying and healing effects of the water.[31] The ten stone spouts at Matatirtha are witness to the yearly mother's day celebration.[2][32]

Water from Bhimdhyo Hiti is being used for religious worship in the Bhimsen temple and the nearby Dattatreya temple in Bhaktapur. Devotees take a bath or make ablutions before entering the temples. Water of Nag Pokhari (also known as Thanthu Darbar Hiti) in Bhaktapur is used to worship the Goddess Taleju.[26] Water from Manga Hiti in Patan is used daily as holy water for Krishna Mandir and it is used to perform puja in Kartik month. Other hitis are also used for worship at nearby temples.[8]

Substitute for far away waterbodies
Pilgrim bathing in Gosainkunda

Gosaikunda is a sacred lake for both Hindus and Buddhists. Taking a bath in this lake in Langtang National Park is something to be done at least once in a lifetime. According to legend the spring that feeds the pond in the Kumbheshwor temple complex in Patan is connected to Gosaikunda. Therefore those who cannot make the long journey to the lake, as thousands of pilgrims do during Janai Purnima or Gangadasahara, can visit Kumbeshwar Pokhari instead.[14][2][33][34][35]

In a similar way there is believed to be a connection between Godawari Kunda and Kva Hiti in Kathmandu and between Kathmandu's Maru Hiti and Yankidaha near Thankot village in Chandragiri.[2]

Disaster response

Hitis with a large enough flow (litres per minute) can also be vital in case of a fire, especially in densely built parts of the city where a firetruck would not be able to go. Kontihiti in Patan qualified for this in 2012.[1]

Hospitality

Along important routes for traders or pilgrims, sometimes a succession of hitis (with dharmasala) was built to alleviate the thirst of the travelers.[5][2][13]

Management

Traditionally the daily maintenance of the hitis was in the hands of guthis (local community groups dedicated to certain tasks). Living near the hiti and maybe paying regular visits to it as users, they were best placed to discover problems, like damage to the masonry, pollution with debris or clogging of the drain, and perform repairs. The guthis were receiving payment for their work. On a different level procedures were in place to maintain the royal canals.[7]

Even in the past the maintenance of the entire water system has been problematic. King Jitamitra Malla (1663-1696) of Bhaktapur had to issue a law to ensure the maintenance would be done.[5]

Kumbeshwar Mela in Patan

Each year Sithi Nakha, a day dedicated to Kumar Kartikeya, one of the two sons of Hindu deity Shiva, is used to clean water sources like wells, ponds and hitis.[7] People all over Kathmandu Valley converge to perform their cleaning activities before the beginning of the monsoon rains.[36]

Other festivals contribute to the upkeep of hitis and ponds as well, because they require them to be in good working order before the festival can take place. The Bunga Dyah Jatra in Patan is one example; all the ponds that are involved in the festival need to be filled, before the construction of the chariot at Pulchok can begin. And all the stops of the procession are next to one of the water bodies of Patan.[37][29] During the festival Janai Purnima the otherwise dry Kumbeshwar Pokhari in Patan must be filled with water for the Kumbeshwar Mela.[38][39][35][40] Similarly Kathmandu's Gahana Pokhari is vital in the Gahana Khojne festival, just as the city's Nag Pokhari is for Naga Panchami. Siddha Pokhari in Bhaktapur is central in the Dashain festival.[41][42][43]

Sometimes the reverse happens: the decline of the water bodies causes a tradition to be discontinued. This is what happened with the yearly "Nine conduit procession" (gupu hiti sikegu) in Bhaktapur.[2][16]

Decline
The reduced Paleswan Pukhu in Patan[7]
Neglected hiti in Bhaktapur
Kanya Mandir School was built in Ekha Pukhu in Kathmandu[7]
Water tank truck in Bhaktapur
Lagankhel Bus Station in Patan used to be a pond

In late 1891, under Rana rule (1846-1951 AD), a piped water system was introduced in Kathmandu Valley. It was then only available to the elite. After the country had opened itself up to the world in 1951, the western water management system was expanded to Kathmandu, Patan and Bhaktapur and the rest of the country. Unfortunately, this led to the neglect of the hiti infrastructure.[7][44]

The earthquake of 1934 damaged part of the royal canals, causing many hitis to dry up.[45]

With the absence of any regulation, hitis and ponds were encroached upon.

A municipal building was built on the site of Paleswan Pukhu in Patan, greatly reducing its size and one pond became a bus station. Schools were built in ponds in Patan and Kathmandu. Kathmandu’s large Lainchaur Pokhari had to make room for the Nepal Scouts building.[25][41] Bhaktapur also saw ponds turned into a school and a bus station. The pond areas have become prime real estate in Katmandu Valley.

Of the 39 ponds counted in Patan in 1993, 9 were reduced in size and 14 were completely gone in 2007.[7][46][26][23] Of the 233 ponds found in the 2019 survey by the KVWSMB 40 were destroyed completely.[10]

Hitis underwent a similar fate. Either their source was damaged or their connection to it was interrupted by the construction of houses or underground pipes. Some were built over entirely with offices or roads. In other cases the water level in the aquifer has dropped due to the digging of private wells by individual houseowners or industries.[1][47]

The government policy to centralise management of the guthi system under Nepal Guthi Corporation had a detrimental effect.[7] Hitis were not looked after properly any more and were allowed to be polluted. Necessary repairs were not forthcoming. In one case the roots of a peepal tree, that had been kept in check by the hiti users, were allowed to grow unchecked, causing leakage of the pipes, which in turn caused the hiti to dry up.[17]

The water is also increasingly contaminated with chemicals and bacteria. This affects other sources of water as well, like the dug wells, water tank trucks, tap water and bottled water. Part of the contamination is caused by the leakage of septic tanks.[7][48][49][50][51][52][53][8]

The water shortage is further compounded by an industry that has developed to alleviate it. Deep wells are dug outside the municipal areas by private enterprises. In 2019 about 150 private water companies were active in Kathmandu Valley.[54] This has further lowered the groundwater level, affecting the flow of the hitis. It has also affected farmers in the area who now have to compete for water that has traditionally always been theirs. Water tank trucks from government organisations and commercial water enterprises are a familiar sight in the cities these days.[17][8][55][56][57]

Revival
Waiting in line at Manga Hiti, Patan

Over the past decades there is an increasing interest in reviving the dhunge dharas of the country, not merely because they belong to the cultural heritage of Nepal.[7][1]

Growing water shortage

In spite of efforts of the Nepalese government to supply safe drinking water to all citizens of Nepal, most recently through the much-plagued Melamchi Water Supply Project, started in 1988, many people still have to turn to hitis for their daily water needs.[7][58][59] Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL), the company dedicated to supplying drinking water in the Kathmandu Valley, managed to supply 110 million litres of water per day in 2016 (about 144 mld in the wet season and 86 mld in the dry season), while the daily demand for water in the valley was around 370 million liters.[60][61] According to Sanjeev Bickram Rana, executive director of the KVWSMB, the discrepancy between supply and demand has risen since then: at the beginning of the year 2020 he reported a demand of 400 mld, while the supply varied from 150 to 90 mld.[62]

This continued water shortage has led to several initiatives to investigate the possibilities of reviving the old systems in the Kathmandu Valley, some of them recommending that the Declaration of the National Convention on Stone Spouts of 2007 (DNCSS 2007) be implemented. The reports all stress the necessity of working hitis to supplement the drinking water supply, although they differ in their assessment of how difficult achieving this would be.[17][63][64][45][65]

Ga Hiti in Thamel

Work on dhunge dharas

In the meantime, a number of individual hitis has been renovated. In Patan, for example, locals have revived Alko Hiti, Iku Hiti and Hiku Hiti.[66][7]

The Nag Bahal Hiti Rehabilitation project restored Nag Bahal Hiti in Patan, funded by the US Ambassadors Fund for Cultural Preservation and supported by the Nagbahal Hiti User Group. The works included repairing the inlet and outlet channels of the hiti, while at the same time mapping the channel for future maintenance.[67][65]

Until April 2015 Ga Hiti in Thamel (Kathmandu) provided about 12,000 households with access to water. During the earthquake part of the neighboring hotel collapsed into the hiti, killing several people in the hotel as well as in the hiti basin. Ga Hiti was further damaged by the search and rescue operation that ensued. Thanks to the efforts of the local community, members of the Ga Hiti Youth Club and many volunteers, and with the help of the Kathmandu Metropolitan Office, Ga Hiti was restored by the beginning of 2017.[68][16][69]

Jyawalakhyo Pukhu in Patan still has the traditional brickwork[1]

New life for ponds

In the large cities of Kathmandu Valley several ponds are in the process of being restored, like Rani Pokhari in Kathmandu, Bhajya Pukhu in Bhaktapur and Nhu Pokhari in Patan. In other areas of the country ponds are being restored or even created as well.

Some ponds have already been restored using concrete for the walls and the bed instead of the traditional brick and kalo mato (black mud). This has turned them into impenetrable tanks and so deprives them of their original role in the water management of their city. Examples of ponds changed in this way are Khapinchhen Pukhu, Kuti Sauga Pukhu and Bhailagaa.[23]

Rani Pokhari in 2017
In March 2020 concrete is repaced by bricks

Kathmandu

The work on Rani Pokhari, which was damaged in the 2015 earthquake, began in January 2016 and has been fraught with controversy. The original plans used concrete for the restoration and included fountains and a new lakeside café. After a series of local protests the city of Katmandu was ordered in January 2018 to restore the pond to the way it was in 1670. Sixty traditional builders, more than 40 of them women, have been brought in from Bhaktapur to take up the task.[70][71][72][73][74][75] In July 2019 a start was also made with the reconstruction of Kamal Pokhari. The work should be completed by June 2020.[76][77] There is even a proposal for the restoration of what is left of Ekha Pukhu.[78]

Bhajya Pukhu before restoration

Bhaktapur

Bhaju Pukhu, a pond that has recently been established as being much older than Rani Pokhari but is in many ways very similar, incurred serious damage in a 1681 earthquake and had since never been restored. In October 2017 a project was started that included restoration of Bhaju Pukhu, using the traditional methods and materials. The work is expected to be completed in 2019. The city of Bhaktapur is currently working on the restoration of six ponds, five wells, and five hitis.[79][80][81][82]

Patan
Thapa Hiti in Patan

The work on Nhu Pokhari has started in 2019. The plan is to use traditional materials here as well. Pimbahal Pokhari in Patan has already been restored and the city of Lalitpur has plans for Purna Chandi and Saptapatal Pokhari. The Supreme Court of Nepal had to intervene on behalf of Saptapatal Pokhari to stop the building that was planned there.[46][83][84][24][85] Prayag Pokhari in Patan could not be saved. Apart from a small concrete courtyard that was kept for religious purposes, it was all built up. With the help of the government of the Czech Republic and a Czech company a new way was found to harvest the rainwater in the area and provide water for Tagal Hiti and Thapa Hiti.[86]

Other locations

In Sankhu two ponds: Pala Pukhu and Kalash Pokhari, have been restored and provided with fire hydrants.[87][88] Kirtipur and Bungamati are also working on their ponds.[46][89][90]

Between 2013 and 2016 the villagers of Tinpiple and Dapcha, both in Kavre District, with the help of the ICIMOD and the Nepal Water Conservation Foundation (NWCF), dug six ponds in the hillsides of the villages to replenish the groundwater and revive their village springs and spouts.[91][92][93]

In the Manthali Municipality and the Ramechhap Municipality a project was started to revive 50 old ponds in two years time, with the help of the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development. So far 21 ponds have been restored, for example Thulo Pokhari in Sunarpani.[94]

Rajkulo repairs

The state canals have received attention as well. Because the canal of Patan was found to be in the best condition, compared to the canals of Bhaktapur and Kathmandu, in 2005 a project was started to bring it back to life.[27] When the canal is completely restored, an estimated 40 hitis wil start working again. At this time the canal has reached Thecho, about five kilometers from Patan Durbar Square. The project has now been halted due to a lack of funds.[95]

In 2016 a rajkulo used for irrigation in Bidur Municipality, Nuwakot, that had been damaged in 2015, was repaired and even improved by the Community For Business Development and Promotion Society (COBDEPS).[96]

Saraswati Hiti
Tusha Hiti

In 1974, Pier Paolo Pasolini used Tusha Hiti and Saraswati Hiti in Patan, along with other places in Nepal, as locations for his film Arabian Nights (Il fiore delle mille e una notte).[97]

In 2015, around the time of the earthquakes, a community arts project was organised, centered around the hitis of Patan. Women living in the area told stories and created works of visual art about their relationships with water and health during the Sacred Water project. Some of the artworks can still be seen on their website.[98]

In 2015 Manga Hiti in Patan was used as a location for the Photo Kathmandu festival.[99] In 2016 Manga Hiti featured in a romantic music video.[100]

Eros Ink Tattoo studio in Kathmandu showcases a tattoo of Nag Pokhari hiti in Bhaktapur on its website.[101]

Tun and jahru
  • Nag Bahal Hiti, Patan, with built-in jahru
  • Two jahru's in the walls of Tanga Hiti in Patan
  • Nateswari Temple with jahru in Changu Narayan
  • Well in Bhaktapur
  • Jahru next to the well
  • Modern well near Bagmati River
  • Village well in Terai Region

Construction of water conduits like hitis, dug wells and jahrus are considered as pious acts in Nepal.[7]

It is estimated that more than a 1000 old dug wells (tun) can be found in Kathmandu Valley. Many of them are still being used.[7].

Another structure is the tutedhara or jahru (jarun, jaladroni), a (usually) covered drinking water reservoir built out of stone with a tap that can be opened and closed. These structures are either free-standing or integrated into the wall of a hiti or other building. They depend on either a tun or a hiti to be filled. In a hiti this reservoir is used to store the excess water that flows into the dhunge dhara. Many jahrus, especially the ones not part of a hiti, are no longer in use.[2][19]

References
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