Cruciferous vegetables

Cruciferous vegetables are vegetables of the family Brassicaceae (also called Cruciferae) with many genera, species, and cultivars being raised for food production such as cauliflower, cabbage, kale, garden cress, bok choy, broccoli, Brussels sprouts and similar green leaf vegetables. The family takes its alternative name (Cruciferae, New Latin for "cross-bearing") from the shape of their flowers, whose four petals resemble a cross.

This article is about the use of Brassicaceae as food. For a botanical description of plants in this family (whether or not used for food), see Brassicaceae.
Cabbage plants

Ten of the most common cruciferous vegetables eaten by people, known colloquially in North America as cole crops[1] and in Britain and Ireland as "brassicas", are in a single species (Brassica oleracea); they are not distinguished from one another taxonomically, only by horticultural category of cultivar groups. Numerous other genera and species in the family are also edible. Cruciferous vegetables are one of the dominant food crops worldwide. They are high in vitamin C and soluble fiber and contain multiple nutrients and phytochemicals.

List of cruciferous vegetables

Extensive selective breeding has produced a large variety of cultivars, especially within the genus Brassica. One description of genetic factors involved in the breeding of Brassica species is the Triangle of U.

The taxonomy of common cruciferous vegetables
common namegenusspecific epithetCultivar group
HorseradishArmoraciarusticana
Land cressBarbareaverna
Ethiopian mustardBrassicacarinata
KaleBrassicaoleraceaAcephala group
Collard greensBrassicaoleraceaAcephala group
Chinese broccoli (gai-lan / jie lan)BrassicaoleraceaAlboglabra group
CabbageBrassicaoleraceaCapitata group
Savoy cabbageBrassicaoleraceaSavoy Cabbage group
Brussels sproutsBrassicaoleraceaGemmifera group
KohlrabiBrassicaoleraceaGongylodes group
BroccoliBrassicaoleraceaItalica group
BroccoliniBrassicaoleraceaItalica group × Alboglabra group
BroccoflowerBrassicaoleraceaItalica group × Botrytis group
Broccoli romanescoBrassicaoleraceaBotrytis group / Italica group
CauliflowerBrassicaoleraceaBotrytis group
Wild broccoliBrassicaoleraceaOleracea group
Bok choyBrassicarapachinensis
KomatsunaBrassicarapaperviridis or komatsuna
MizunaBrassicarapanipposinica
Rapini (broccoli rabe)Brassicarapaparachinensis
Choy sum (Flowering cabbage)Brassicarapaparachinensis
Chinese cabbage, napa cabbageBrassicarapapekinensis
Turnip root; greensBrassicaraparapifera
Rutabaga (swede)Brassicanapusnapobrassica
Siberian kaleBrassicanapuspabularia
Canola/rapeseedBrassicarapa/napusoleifera
Wrapped heart mustard cabbageBrassicajuncearugosa
Mustard seeds, brown; greensBrassicajuncea
White mustard seedsBrassica (or Sinapis)hirta
Black mustard seedsBrassicanigra
TatsoiBrassicarosularis
Wild arugulaDiplotaxistenuifolia
Arugula (rocket)Erucavesicaria
Field pepperweedLepidiumcampestre
MacaLepidiummeyenii
Garden cressLepidiumsativum
WatercressNasturtiumofficinale
RadishRaphanussativus
DaikonRaphanussativuslongipinnatus
WasabiWasabiajaponica

Research

Cruciferous vegetables contain glucosinolates, which are under research for their potential to affect cancer.[2][3][4][5] Glucosinolates are hydrolyzed to isothiocyanates (ITCs) by myrosinase.[6] ITCs are being investigated for their chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic effects.[6][7] An example is the finding that the ITC phenethyl isothiocyanate reduced levels of the oncoprotein MCL1.[8][9] Other in vitro research indicates ITCs may affect levels of the BCR-ABL fusion protein, the oncoprotein active in leukemia.[9][10]

Drug and toxin metabolism

Chemicals contained in cruciferous vegetables induce the expression of the liver enzyme CYP1A2.[11]

Alliaceous and cruciferous vegetable consumption may induce glutathione S-transferases, uridine diphosphate-glucuronosyl transferases, and quinone reductases[12] all of which are potentially involved in detoxification of carcinogens such as aflatoxin.[13] High consumption of cruciferous vegetables has potential risk from allergies and interference with drugs such as warfarin and genotoxicity.[14][15]

Taste

People who can taste phenylthiocarbamide (PTC), which is either bitter or tasteless, are less likely to find cruciferous vegetables palatable [16] due to the resemblance between isothiocyanates and PTC.

Contraindications

Although cruciferous vegetables are generally safe for human consumption, individuals with known allergies or hypersensitivities to a certain Brassica vegetable, or those taking anticoagulant therapy, should be cautious.[17]

References
  1. Gibson AC. "Colewart and the cole crops". University of California Los Angeles. Archived from the original on 2012-11-09.
  2. "Cruciferous Vegetables and Cancer Prevention". Fact Sheet. National Cancer Institute, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 7 June 2012.
  3. Le HT, Schaldach CM, Firestone GL, Bjeldanes LF (Jun 2003). "Plant-derived 3,3'-Diindolylmethane is a strong androgen antagonist in human prostate cancer cells". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 278 (23): 21136–45. doi:10.1074/jbc.M300588200. PMID 12665522.
  4. Murillo G, Mehta RG (2001). "Cruciferous vegetables and cancer prevention". Nutrition and Cancer. 41 (1–2): 17–28. doi:10.1080/01635581.2001.9680607. PMID 12094621.
  5. Minich DM, Bland JS (Jun 2007). "A review of the clinical efficacy and safety of cruciferous vegetable phytochemicals". Nutrition Reviews. 65 (6 Pt 1): 259–67. doi:10.1111/j.1753-4887.2007.tb00303.x. PMID 17605302.
  6. Singh SV, Singh K (Oct 2012). "Cancer chemoprevention with dietary isothiocyanates mature for clinical translational research". Carcinogenesis. 33 (10): 1833–42. doi:10.1093/carcin/bgs216. PMC 3529556. PMID 22739026.
  7. Gupta P, Kim B, Kim SH, Srivastava SK (Aug 2014). "Molecular targets of isothiocyanates in cancer: recent advances". Molecular Nutrition & Food Research. 58 (8): 1685–707. doi:10.1002/mnfr.201300684. PMC 4122603. PMID 24510468.
  8. Gao N, Budhraja A, Cheng S, Liu EH, Chen J, Yang Z, Chen D, Zhang Z, Shi X (2011-04-07). "Phenethyl isothiocyanate exhibits antileukemic activity in vitro and in vivo by inactivation of Akt and activation of JNK pathways". Cell Death & Disease. 2 (4): e140. doi:10.1038/cddis.2011.22. PMC 3122055. PMID 21472003.
  9. Lawson AP, Long MJ, Coffey RT, Qian Y, Weerapana E, El Oualid F, Hedstrom L (Dec 2015). "Naturally Occurring Isothiocyanates Exert Anticancer Effects by Inhibiting Deubiquitinating Enzymes". Cancer Research. 75 (23): 5130–42. doi:10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-15-1544. PMC 4668232. PMID 26542215.
  10. Zhang H, Trachootham D, Lu W, Carew J, Giles FJ, Keating MJ, Arlinghaus RB, Huang P (Jun 2008). "Effective killing of Gleevec-resistant CML cells with T315I mutation by a natural compound PEITC through redox-mediated mechanism". Leukemia. 22 (6): 1191–9. doi:10.1038/leu.2008.74. PMC 2585768. PMID 18385754.
  11. Lampe JW, King IB, Li S, Grate MT, Barale KV, Chen C, Feng Z, Potter JD (Jun 2000). "Brassica vegetables increase and apiaceous vegetables decrease cytochrome P450 1A2 activity in humans: changes in caffeine metabolite ratios in response to controlled vegetable diets". Carcinogenesis. 21 (6): 1157–62. doi:10.1093/carcin/21.6.1157. PMID 10837004.
  12. Kensler TW, Curphey TJ, Maxiutenko Y, Roebuck BD (2000). "Chemoprotection by organosulfur inducers of phase 2 enzymes: dithiolethiones and dithiins". Drug Metabolism and Drug Interactions. 17 (1–4): 3–22. doi:10.1515/DMDI.2000.17.1-4.3. PMID 11201301.
  13. Kensler TW, Chen JG, Egner PA, Fahey JW, Jacobson LP, Stephenson KK, Ye L, Coady JL, Wang JB, Wu Y, Sun Y, Zhang QN, Zhang BC, Zhu YR, Qian GS, Carmella SG, Hecht SS, Benning L, Gange SJ, Groopman JD, Talalay P (Nov 2005). "Effects of glucosinolate-rich broccoli sprouts on urinary levels of aflatoxin-DNA adducts and phenanthrene tetraols in a randomized clinical trial in He Zuo township, Qidong, People's Republic of China". Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. 14 (11 Pt 1): 2605–13. doi:10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-05-0368. PMID 16284385.
  14. Latté KP, Appel KE, Lampen A (Dec 2011). "Health benefits and possible risks of broccoli - an overview". Food and Chemical Toxicology. 49 (12): 3287–309. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2011.08.019. PMID 21906651.
  15. Scott O, Galicia-Connolly E, Adams D, Surette S, Vohra S, Yager JY (2012). "The safety of cruciferous plants in humans: a systematic review". Journal of Biomedicine & Biotechnology. 2012: 503241. doi:10.1155/2012/503241. PMC 3303573. PMID 22500092.
  16. Wooding S, Kim UK, Bamshad MJ, Larsen J, Jorde LB, Drayna D (Apr 2004). "Natural selection and molecular evolution in PTC, a bitter-taste receptor gene". American Journal of Human Genetics. 74 (4): 637–46. doi:10.1086/383092. PMC 1181941. PMID 14997422. Lay summary – Science Blog.
  17. Scott O, Galicia-Connolly E, Adams D, Surette S, Vohra S, Yager JY (2012). "The safety of cruciferous plants in humans: a systematic review". Journal of Biomedicine & Biotechnology. 2012: 503241. doi:10.1155/2012/503241. PMC 3303573. PMID 22500092.

Further reading
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