Automobile drag coefficient

The drag coefficient is a common measure in automotive design as it pertains to aerodynamics. Drag is a force that acts parallel to and in the same direction as the airflow. The drag coefficient of an automobile measures the way the automobile passes through the surrounding air. When automobile companies design a new vehicle they take into consideration the automobile drag coefficient in addition to the other performance characteristics. Aerodynamic drag increases with the square of speed; therefore it becomes critically important at higher speeds. Reducing the drag coefficient in an automobile improves the performance of the vehicle as it pertains to speed and fuel efficiency.[1] There are many different ways to reduce the drag of a vehicle. A common way to measure the drag of the vehicle is through the drag area.

Edmund Rumpler's 1921 Tropfenwagen was the first series-produced aerodynamically designed automobile, before the Chrysler Airflow and the Tatra 77.

Reducing drag

The reduction of drag in road vehicles has led to increases in the top speed of the vehicle and the vehicle's fuel efficiency, as well as many other performance characteristics, such as handling and acceleration.[2] The two main factors that impact drag are the frontal area of the vehicle and the drag coefficient. The drag coefficient is a unit-less value that denotes how much an object resists movement through a fluid such as water or air. A potential complication of altering a vehicle's aerodynamics is that it may cause the vehicle to get too much lift. Lift is an aerodynamic force that acts perpendicular to the airflow around the body of the vehicle. Too much lift can cause the vehicle to lose road traction which can be very unsafe.[3] Lowering the drag coefficient comes from streamlining the exterior body of the vehicle. Streamlining the body requires assumptions about the surrounding airspeed and characteristic use of the vehicle.

Deletion

The deletion of parts on a vehicle is an easy way for designers and vehicle owners to reduce parasitic and frontal drag of the vehicle with little cost and effort. Deletion can be as simple as removing an aftermarket part, or part that has been installed on the vehicle after production, or having to modify and remove an OEM part, meaning any part of the vehicle that was originally manufactured on the vehicle. Most production sports cars and high efficiency vehicles come standard with many of these deletions in order to be competitive in the automotive and race market, while others choose to keep these drag-increasing aspects of the vehicle for their visual aspects, or to fit the typical uses of their customer base.[4]

Roof rack

A roof rack is a common trait on many SUV and station wagon vehicles. While roof racks are very useful in carrying extra storage on a vehicle, they also increase the frontal area of the vehicle and increase the drag coefficient. This is because the air flows over the top of the vehicle, following the smooth lines of the hood and windshield, then collides with the roof rack and causes turbulence. The removal of this part has led to increases in fuel efficiency in several studies.[5]

Mud flaps

Mudflaps are now rarely specified as standard on production cars as they interfere with the clean airflow around the vehicle. For larger vehicles such as trucks, mud flaps are still important for their control of spray, and in 2010 a new version of the mud flap was introduced that has been shown to create significantly less aerodynamic drag than standard mud flaps.[6]

Rear spoiler

A rear spoiler usually comes standard in most sports vehicles and resembles the shape of a raised wing in the rear of the vehicle. The main purpose of a rear spoiler in a vehicle's design is to counteract lift, thereby increasing stability at higher speeds. In order to achieve the lowest possible drag, air must flow around the streamlined body of the vehicle without coming into contact with any areas of possible turbulence. A rear spoiler design that stands off the rear deck lid will increase downforce, reducing lift at high speeds while incurring a drag penalty. Flat spoilers, possibly angled slightly downward may reduce turbulence and thereby reduce the coefficient of drag.[7] Some cars now feature automatically adjustable rear spoilers, so at lower speed the effect on drag is reduced when the benefits of reduced lift are not required.

Side mirrors

Side mirrors both increase the frontal area of the vehicle and increase the coefficient of drag since they protrude from the side of the vehicle.[8][9] In order to decrease the impact that side mirrors have on the drag of the vehicle the side mirrors can be replaced with smaller mirrors or mirrors with a different shape. Several concept cars of the 2010s are replacing mirrors with tiny cameras[10] but this option is not common for production cars because most countries require side mirrors.

Radio antenna

While they do not have the biggest impact on the drag coefficient due to their small size, radio antennas commonly found protruding from the front of the vehicle can be relocated and changed in design to rid the car of this added drag. The most common replacement for the standard car antenna is the shark fin antenna found in most high efficiency vehicles.[11]

Windshield wipers

The effect that windshield wipers have on a vehicle's airflow varies between vehicles; however, they are often omitted from race vehicles and high efficiency concepts in order to maintain the smallest possible coefficient of drag. A much more common option is to replace the windshield wipers with lower profile wipers, or to only remove the windshield wiper on the passenger side of the vehicle, and even to fabricate a deflector to deflect the air up and over the wipers.[12]

Another alternative is to equip the vehicle with a single wiper placed in the centre of the windshield, allowing it to cover both sides of the windshield. This mitigates the amount of drag by decreasing the frontal area of the blade. While such application may be useful for racing, for most road vehicles this would produce minimal improvement in overall drag reduction.

Fabrication

The application of new parts and concepts onto the vehicle design are easier to include when in the design stage of a vehicle, rather than in aftermarket (automotive) parts, however, the fabrication of these parts assists in the streamlining of the vehicle and can help greatly reduce the drag of the vehicle. Most vehicles with very low drag coefficients, such as race cars and high efficiency concept cars, apply these ideas to their design.[13]

Wheel covers
Alloy wheels with covers on a Tesla Model 3

When air flows around the wheel wells it gets disturbed by the rims of the vehicles and forms an area of turbulence around the wheel. In order for the air to flow more smoothly around the wheel well, smooth wheel covers are often applied. Smooth wheel covers are hub caps with no holes in them for air to pass through. This design reduces drag; however, it may cause the brakes to heat up more quickly because the covers prevent airflow around the brake system. As a result, this modification is more commonly seen in high efficiency vehicles rather than sports cars or racing vehicles.[14]

Air curtains
2017 Land Rover Discovery with front air curtains

Air curtains divert air flow from slots in the body and guide it towards the outside edges of the wheel wells.[15][16][17]

Partial grille block

The front grille of a vehicle is used to direct air directly into the engine compartment. In a streamlined design the air flows around the vehicle rather than through; however, the grille of a vehicle redirects airflow from around the vehicle to through the vehicle, which then increases the drag. In order to reduce this impact a grille block is often used. A grille block covers up a portion of, or the entirety of, the front grille of a vehicle. In most high efficiency models or in vehicles with low drag coefficients, a very small grille will already be built into the vehicle's design, eliminating the need for a grille block. The grille in most production vehicles is generally designed to maximize air flow into the engine compartment to keep it from overheating. This design can actually create too much airflow into the engine compartment, preventing it from warming up in a timely manner, and in such cases a grille block is used to increase engine performance and reduce vehicle drag simultaneously.[18]

Under tray

The underside of a vehicle often traps air in various places and adds turbulence around the vehicle. In most racing vehicles this is eliminated by covering the entire underside of the vehicle in what is called an under tray. This tray prevents any air from becoming trapped under the vehicle and reduces drag.[14]

Fender skirts

Fender skirts are often made as extensions of the body panels of the vehicles and cover the entire wheel wells. Much like smooth wheel covers this modification reduces the drag of the vehicle by preventing any air from becoming trapped in the wheel well and assists in streamlining the body of the vehicle. Fender skirts are more commonly found on the rear wheel wells of a vehicle because the tires do not turn and the design is much simpler. This is commonly seen in vehicles such as the first generation Honda Insight. Front fender skirts have the same effect on reducing drag as the rear wheel skirts, but must be further offset from the body in order to compensate for the tire sticking out from the body of the vehicle as turns are made.[14]

Modified front bumper

The front bumper is the first part of the vehicle that the air must flow around. Therefore, it plays a crucial role in reducing drag. A front air dam is often used which extends from the very front of the vehicle down to the lowest part of the vehicle. This is done to direct airflow around and over the vehicle rather than allowing air to travel under it. Contoured deflectors, or tire spats, are often made as part of the front bumper in order to direct airflow around the tire without having any increase to the outward flow.

Boattails and Kammbacks

A boattail can greatly reduce a vehicle's total drag. Boattails create a teardrop shape that will give the vehicle a more streamlined profile, reducing the occurrence of drag inducing flow separation.[19] A kammback is a truncated boattail. It is created as an extension of the rear of the vehicle, moving the rear backward at a slight angle toward the bumper of the car. This can reduce drag as well but a boattail would reduce the vehicles drag more. Nonetheless, for practical and style reasons, a kammback is more commonly seen in racing, high efficiency vehicles, and trucking.[20]

Typical drag coefficients

The average modern automobile achieves a drag coefficient of between 0.25 and 0.3. SUVs, with their typically boxy shapes, typically achieve a Cd=0.35–0.45. The drag coefficient of a vehicle is affected by the shape of body of the vehicle. Various other characteristics affect the coefficient of drag as well, and are taken into account in these examples. Some sports cars have a surprisingly high drag coefficient (Such as the Ariel Atom at 0.40), but this is to compensate for the amount of lift the vehicle generates, while others use aerodynamics to their advantage to gain speed and as a result have much lower drag coefficients.

Some examples of Cd follow. Figures given are generally for the basic model, which may not be available in some markets. Some "high performance" models may actually have higher drag, due to wider tires, extra spoilers and larger cooling systems as many basic/low power models have half size radiators with the remaining area blanked off to reduce cooling and engine bay drag.

The Cd of a given vehicle will vary depending on which wind tunnel it is measured in. Variations of up to 5% have been documented[21] and variations in test technique and analysis can also make a difference. So if the same vehicle with a drag coefficient of Cd=0.30 was measured in a different tunnel it could be anywhere from Cd=0.285 to Cd=0.315.

Production cars
CdAutomobileCalendar Year
0.7 to 1.1typical values for a Formula One car (downforce settings change for each circuit)
0.74Legends car
0.7Caterham Seven
0.65 to 0.75Lotus Seven1957–1972
0.6 +a typical truck
0.59[22]Land Rover Defender2008
0.57Hummer H22003
0.54Mercedes Benz G-Class
0.51Volkswagen Westfalia Camper1980-1991
0.51Citroën 2CV1948
0.48Rover Mini1998
0.48Volkswagen Beetle (original design)[23][24]1938
0.48Volkswagen Cabriolet (Rabbit Convertible)[25]1979–1993
0.47Lancia Aprilia[26]1937
0.46Ford Mustang (coupe)1979
0.46Lincoln Town Car (sedan)1985-1989[27]
0.454[28]Jeep Wrangler (JL)2018
0.45Dodge Viper RT/101996
0.45Mercury Grand Marquis (sedan)1988-1991[29]
0.45Range Rover Classic1990
0.44Volkswagen Vanagon1980-1991
0.44Ford Mustang (fastback)1979
0.44Peugeot 3051978
0.44Peugeot 5041968
0.44Toyota Truck1990
0.43TVR 3000S1978-79
0.425Duple 425 coach
(named for its low Cd by coach standards)		1985
0.42Lamborghini Countach1974
0.42Plymouth Duster1994
0.42Triumph Spitfire Mk IV1971
0.41Smart Roadster2003
0.41Volvo 740 (sedan)1982
0.405Subaru Forester1997-2002[30]
0.40Mercury Cougar1983-1986
0.40Chevrolet Astro1995-2005[31]
0.40Ariel Atom2002[32]
0.40Ford Escape Hybrid2005
0.40Nissan Skyline GT-R R321989
0.40Jaguar XJS1976-1996
0.39Chevrolet Tahoe2006
0.39MG ZR2001
0.39Dodge Durango2004
0.39Ford Aerostar1995[33]
0.39Ford Escort 5 Door1981-1984[34]
0.39Honda Odyssey1994-98
0.39[35]Toyota Tacoma (N300)2016
0.39Triumph Spitfire1964
0.385Nissan 280ZX1978
0.38Fiat Ritmo1978
0.38Ford Territory2011
0.38Lexus GX2003
0.38Lincoln Mark VII1984-1992[36]
0.38Mazda Miata1989
0.38Fiat 5001957
0.38Smart Roadster Coupé2003
0.38Subaru Forester2009-2013[37]
0.38VW NewBeetle[38]
without wing or spoiler 0.39[39]		2003
0.374Ford Capri Mk III1978
0.372Ferrari F501996
0.37Ford Escort Mk.III (Europe)1980
0.37BMW Z3 M coupe1999
0.37Jaguar XJ (X300/X308)
0.37Mercury Grand Marquis1998-2002[40]
0.37Mercury Grand Marquis2003-2011[41]
0.37Renault Twingo I
0.37Volkswagen Tiguan2008
0.36Alfa Romeo 331983[42]
0.36Cadillac Escalade hybrid2008
0.36Cadillac Fleetwood1996
0.36Citroën CX (named after the term for Cd)1974
0.36Citroën DS1955
0.36Chrysler Sebring1996
0.36Ferrari Testarossa1986
0.36Ford Escort1997-2002[43]
0.36Ford Focus 3-door2000-2004
0.36Ford Mustang1999
0.36Honda Civic2001–2005
0.36Lincoln Town Car1990-1997[44]
0.36Mercury Cougar1987-1988
0.36Mercury Grand Marquis1992-1997[29]
0.36Mitsubishi Magna, V3000 sedan1985-1991
0.36 Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution IX 2006
0.36Subaru Impreza WRX[45]2010
0.36Saturn SW1996-2001[43]
0.36, 0.244 (1:5)Tatra 871936-1950[46]
0.36Toyota Celica Convertible1994-1999[47]
0.36Volkswagen Jetta1985-1992[48]
0.357 Ram 1500 Quad Cab 4x22018[49]
0.355NSU Ro 801967
0.355Ford Focus RS2016
0.35Aleko 21411986-2002
0.35Aston Martin Vanquish2004
0.35BMW M3 Convertible2005
0.35BMW Z4 M coupe2006
0.35DeltaWing[50] (endurance racing car)2012
0.35Dodge Viper GTS1996
0.35Ford Thunderbird1983-1988
0.35Ford Windstar1995-1998[51]
0.35Ford Windstar1999-2003[52]
0.35Honda Del Sol1992–1997[43]
0.35Jaguar XKR2005
0.35Lexus GX2010
0.35Lexus RX2003–2009
0.35MINI Cooper2008
0.35Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution X2008
0.35Nissan Cube2009
0.35Renault Clio (Mk 2)2002[53]
0.35SSC Ultimate Aero2007–2013
0.35Tesla Roadster[54]2008
0.35Mitsubishi i-MiEV2011
0.35Smart ForTwo[55]2008-
0.35Toyota MR-21998
0.35Toyota Previa1991-1997[56][57]
0.35Toyota Sequoia2007
0.35Volvo 940 (sedan)1990
0.348Toyota Celica Supra (Mk 2)1982[58]
0.342Toyota Celica (Liftback Model)1982
0.34Alfa Romeo Giulia sedan1968-1972
0.34Aston Martin DB92004
0.34Chevrolet Caprice1994
0.34Chevrolet C6 Corvette Z062006–2013
0.34Chevrolet Tahoe hybrid2008
0.34Ferrari 360 Modena1999
0.34Ferrari F401987
0.34Ferrari F430 F12004
0.34Fiat Uno1984-1989
0.34Ford Puma1997
0.34Ford Sierra1982
0.34Geo Metro (Hatchback)1995-1997[43]
0.34Honda Prelude1988
0.34Mercedes-Benz SL (Roof Down)2001
0.34 Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution X 2014
0.34Nissan Altima1993-1997[59]
0.34Nissan Skyline R34 GT-R1999-2002[60]
0.34Peugeot 1061991
0.34Saab 900 NG2003[61]
0.34Saab 90001984-1998[61]
0.34Saturn SL21991-1995[62]
0.34Subaru Impreza WRX (4 Door)2009[63]
0.34Subaru Legacy Wagon1993-1999[64]
0.34Toyota Corolla (Wagon)1993-1997[65]
0.34Toyota Supra (with factory 3 piece turbo wing)1989–1990
0.339Citroen SM1970-1975[66]
0.338Chevrolet Camaro1995
0.334 Seat Leon FR2005-2011
0.33Acura Integra1993-2001[67]
0.33Acura RSX2002-2006[68]
0.33Alfa Romeo Giulia (saloon)1962[69]
0.33Audi A32006
0.33BMW E30 M31986–1992
0.33Chevrolet Caprice (sedan)1991-1996
0.33Dodge Charger2006
0.33Ford Crown Victoria1992
0.33Ford Escort ZX21998-2003[70]
0.33Ford Fusion2010[71]
0.33Holden Commodore (VT) sedan1997
0.33Honda Accord Sedan2002
0.33Honda Civic Hatchback1988-1991[43]
0.33 to 0.37Koenigsegg Agera R2013
0.33Lamborghini Murcielago2001
0.33Lexus RX2010
0.33Mazda RX-7 FC3C1987
0.33Nissan 200SX Coupe1995-1998[72]
0.33Peugeot 2061998
0.33Dodge Durango
(without roof-rack), ("HEAT" model, 0.325)		2011–present
0.33Peugeot 3091986
0.33Renault Modus2004
0.33Saab 9-3 SC2003[61]
0.33Saturn SL21999[73]
0.33Subaru Impreza WRX STi2004
0.33Subaru Forester2014-2018
0.33[74] Toyota Camry (Sedan) 1991
0.33Toyota Corolla (E100)1993-1997[43]
0.33Toyota Supra (without wing)1989–1990
0.329Chevrolet Corsica1989-2006[75]
0.325Opel Astra J2009
0.324Cobalt SS Supercharged2005
0.321Toyota Matrix2003-2008[76]
0.32Buick Riviera1995
0.32BMW M3 Coupe2005
0.32Dodge Avenger1995
0.32Ferrari California2008
0.32Chrysler 300C2011-2014
0.32Fiat Croma1985-1996
0.32Ford Taurus1992-1995[77]
0.32Geo Metro (Sedan)1995-1997[43]
0.32Seat Leon2005-2011
0.32Honda Accord (Coupe)2002
0.32Honda Ascot Innova (Sedan)1992-1996
0.32Honda Civic (Coupe)1992-1995[43]
0.32Honda Civic (Hatchback DX)1996-2000[78]
0.32Honda Civic (Sedan EX)1996-2000[79]
0.32Honda NSX1990
0.32Hyundai Veloster2012
0.32Jaguar XJ (X350)2006
0.32Koenigsegg CCX2006
0.32Mazdaspeed32007
0.32McLaren F11992
0.32Mercedes-Benz 190E 2.5-16/2.3-161983-1990
0.32Nissan 240SX Coupe1995-1998[80]
0.32Nissan 300ZX1989
0.32Nissan Altima1998-2001[81]
0.32Nissan Maxima1997
0.32Oldsmobile Aurora1995-1999
0.32Porsche 997 GT22008–2013
0.32Peugeot 4061995
0.32Peugeot 8061994
0.32Saab Sonett II1966-1969[61]
0.32Scion xB2008
0.32Suzuki Swift1991
0.32Tatra 6001948-1952[82]
0.32Toyota Celica1994
0.32Toyota Celica2000-2005[83]
0.32Toyota Supra (N/A with wing and turbo models)1993
0.32Toyota Supra (with factory turbo wing)1987–1988
0.32Toyota Tercel Sedan1995-2000[84]
0.32[85]Toyota Corolla Hatchback (E210, US)2019
0.32Volkswagen Golf Mk31991
0.32Volkswagen GTI Mk V2006
0.32Volvo V502004
Production cars (continued)
CdAutomobileCalendar Year
0.315Saturn SL11996-1999[86]
0.31Alfa Romeo 156(1997–2007)
0.31Audi A4 B51995
0.31Audi A52011–2016
0.31Audi A32014
0.31BMW 7 Series2009
0.31Buick Park Avenue1996
0.31Cadillac CTS2004
0.31Cadillac CTS-V2005
0.31Citroën AX1986
0.31Citroën GS1970
0.31Eagle Vision1995
0.31Ford Focus sedan2000-2004
0.31Fiat Coupé1995[87]
0.31Fiat Tipo1988-1995
0.31Ford Falcon1995
0.31Ford Thunderbird1989-1997[88]
0.31Holden Commodore1998
0.31Honda Civic (Hatchback)1992-1995[43]
0.31Honda Civic (Sedan)2006
0.31Infiniti G37 (Coupe)2008–2015[89]
0.31Kia Rio (Sedan)2001[90]
0.31Lamborghini Diablo1990
0.31Lexus LFA
(wing retracted)		2010
0.31Mazda MX-31990–1996
0.31Mazda MX-61992–1997
0.31Mazda RX-7 FC3S1986
0.31Mazda RX-7 FD R1(R2)1993
0.31Mazda RX-82004
0.31 Mazda2 (Hatchback) 2010-2014[91]
0.31Mazda3 (Hatchback)2010-2013
0.31Nissan Tiida / Versa2004
0.31Opel Tigra1994-2000
0.31Pagani Huayra2012[92]
0.31Peugeot 3072001
0.31Peugeot 4051987
0.31Porsche 997 Turbo/GT32006
0.31Renault 251984
0.31Saab Sonett III1970-1974[61]
0.31Saab 9-3 Viggen2003[61]
0.31Saab 9-5 Wagon (2000-2010)2003[61]
0.31Saturn SC22001
0.31Scion xA2004
0.31Toyota Avalon1995–2000
0.31Toyota Corolla (E110)1998-2002[93]
0.31Toyota Corolla (E210, UK)2019[94]
0.31Toyota Paseo1995-1999[95]
0.31Toyota RAV42006
0.31Toyota Supra (N/A; without factory wing)1993
0.31Volkswagen GTI Mk IV1997
0.31Volkswagen Golf Mk62008-2012
0.31Volvo S40 2nd generation2003
0.308Chevrolet Bolt2016[96]
0.308Škoda Octavia RS2005
0.304Ford Probe1988-1992[97]
0.30 Lotus Elan+2[98] 1967-1974
0.30Alfa Romeo 1641988[99]
0.30Audi 1001983
0.30 BMW 3 Series (F30/F31) 335i [100]2012
0.30 Fiat Uno facelift1989-2000
0.30Ford Taurus1996-1999[101][102]
0.30Ford Focus Wagon2000-2004
0.30 Ford Focus ST2013–2018
0.30Honda Accord Sedan2003, 2005–2007
0.30Honda CRX DX/Si[103]1988
0.30Honda NSX2002
0.30Honda Odyssey2005
0.30Hyundai Sonata2006
0.30Koenigsegg CCX2006
0.30Mitsubishi Eclipse2000
0.30Nissan 180SX1989
0.30Nissan 300ZX1983
0.30Nissan 350Z Coupe Base and Enthusiast models2003–2008
0.30Nissan 370Z Coupe
(0.29 with sport package)		2009[104]
0.30 Peugeot 207[105] 2006-2014
0.30Renault 19 16V1991
0.30Saab 921947[61]
0.30Seat Leon2012
0.30[74] Toyota Camry (Sedan) 1996
0.30Toyota Corolla (E120)2003-2008[106]
0.30Toyota Corolla (E210, Europe, Hatchback)2019[107]
0.30Toyota Sienna2003–2009
0.30Volkswagen Bora mk41999–2005
0.30[lower-alpha 1]Mercedes-Benz CLA 250 [108]2013–2018
0.299Cadillac ATS2012 [109]
0.297Fiat Tempra1990-1999
0.296[110]Chevrolet Impala (I4)2013
0.295Ford Falcon1998
0.295Ford Focus Mk.III hatchback [111] (0.274 sedan)2011
0.291[112]Toyota Avalon2005
0.29Alfa Romeo 1551992[113]
0.29Acura TL2004-2008
0.29Audi 801991
0.29 [114]Audi A4 sedan2007
0.29BMW 1 Series (116i Sportshatch)2008
0.29 BMW 3 Series (F30/F31) 328i [100]2012
0.29BMW 8 Series1989-1999
0.29[115][lower-alpha 2]BMW i32013
0.29Chevrolet Corvette2005
0.29Chevrolet Corvette C5 Z062002
0.29[116] Chevrolet Cruze sedan 2016
0.29Daewoo Espero1990
0.29Dodge Charger Daytona1969
0.29Eagle Talon1990s
0.29Fiat Tipo2015[117]
0.29Ford Escape2010[118]
0.29Ford Falcon (AU) sedan1998
0.29Ford Focus C-Max2003[119]
0.29Honda Accord Coupe2003, 2005–2007
0.29[120]Honda Accord Hybrid2005, 2007
0.29Honda CRX HF[103]1988
0.29Infiniti G35 Sedan2008
0.29Kia Niro Hybrid/EV Compact SUV2016[121]
0.29Lancia Dedra1990
0.29Lexus CT 200h2011–present
0.29 [122]Lexus LS 4001990
0.29Lotus Elite1958
0.29Lotus Europa1966
0.29Mazda Millenia1995
0.29Mazda RX-7 FC3S Aero Package1986
0.29Mazda RX-7 FD1993
0.29[123]Mazda3 (sedan)2009
0.29Mercedes-Benz SL (Roof Up)2001–present
0.29Mercedes-Benz C-Class Sportscoupe2001
0.29Nissan 350Z Coupe Track and Grand Touring2007–2008
0.29Nissan Leaf2010 [124]
0.29Opel Calibra
(16v / V6 / Turbo versions)		1989-1997
0.29Peugeot 2082012
0.29Peugeot 3082007–present
0.29Peugeot 4072004-2011
0.29Peugeot 6072000-2010
0.29Pontiac Firebird Trans Am
(with optional W62 Aero Package and N89 Turbo Cast rims)		1984
0.29Porsche 9182010
0.29Porsche Boxster2005–present
0.29Saab 9-5 (1998 – 2009)2003[61]
0.29Subaru SVX (Without factory spoiler)1992
0.29[125][126]Toyota Corolla L/LE sedan (E170), (E210)2013 (E170), 2019 (E210)
0.29Toyota Platz2000-2005[127][128]
0.29[129]Toyota Prius2001
0.29[130]Toyota Yaris (hatchback & sedan)2006-2011
0.29Volvo 850 T-5R sedan1995
0.29[131]Volvo C701998
0.288[132]Chrysler Concorde1998–2001
0.286[133]Perodua Bezza2016
0.286[134]Chevrolet Corvette C6(coupe)2005–2013
0.285[116]Chevrolet Volt2016
0.285[135]Dodge Dart (PF)2012
0.285[136]Opel Astra K Hatchback2015
0.284[137]Volkswagen Passat CC2008–2017
0.281[138]Chevrolet Volt2010-2015
0.28[139]Audi A2 1.4 TDI2000
0.28Citroën C42004
0.28Citroën XM1989
0.28[140]Fiat Croma Nuova2005-2011
0.28[141]Honda Civic Hybrid2003-2005
0.28[142]Honda Insight2009-2014
0.28[143]Hyundai Elantra2011
0.28[144]Hyundai Sonata
(0.25 for the Hybrid)		2011-2013
0.28[145][146]Lexus IS2006–present
0.28[147][148]Opel Omega (sedan)1986–1993
0.28Saab 9-3 SS2003[61]
0.28[149]Rumpler Tropfenwagen1921-1925
0.28[150][151]Toyota Camry XV40, XV502006–2018
0.28Toyota Corolla (E210, Europe, Saloon)2019[107]
0.275Ford Fusion2013[152]
0.274 Peugeot 207 Economique[105] 2009
0.273[153]Ford Focus Mk IV hatchback, (0.25 sedan)2018
0.27[lower-alpha 3] BMW 3 Series (F30/F31) 320d [100]2012
0.27[154]Hyundai Elantra2016
0.27[155]Hyundai Sonata2019
0.27Mazda6 (sedan and hatchback)[156]2008
0.27[157]Mercedes-Benz S Class
(0.268 with Sport Package)		1998–2005
0.27Subaru BRZ and Toyota 862012[158]
0.27[159] Toyota Avalon (XX50) 2018
0.27[160]Volkswagen Jetta Mk72018
0.26[lower-alpha 3] BMW 3 Series (F30/F31) 320d EfficientDynamics [100]2012
0.26BMW 3 Series (E90) (0.26-0.30)2009[161]
0.26Jaguar XE[162]2014
0.26Mazda3 (Sedan)2012[163]
0.26[lower-alpha 3]Mercedes-Benz C-Class Coupe[164]2015–2018
0.26[165]Nissan Altima (6th gen.)2018
0.26[166]Nissan Sylphy (B18)2019
0.26Opel Calibra 8-valve[167]1989
0.25[lower-alpha 3][168]Audi e-tron Sportback2020
0.25 (Manufacturer claim. Independent test measured 0.26.)[169] Toyota Prius[170] 2009-2015
0.25[171]Porsche Taycan Turbo S2019
0.25 Honda Insight[172] 1999-2006
0.25Tesla Model X[173]2018
0.249[174]Škoda Octavia MkIV liftback2020
0.24[175]Hyundai Ioniq2016–Present
0.24[176]Kia Optima Hybrid2016
0.24[lower-alpha 3]Mercedes-Benz S 350 BlueTec[177]2013
0.24[lower-alpha 3]Mercedes-Benz C 220 BlueTec BlueEfficiency Sedan[178]2014–Present
0.24Tesla Model S[179]2012
0.24Toyota Prius[180]2016
0.24 Xpeng P7[181] 2020
0.23[182][lower-alpha 3]Audi A4 2.0 TDI ultra (110 kW)2015
0.23[183][lower-alpha 3]Alfa Romeo Giulia Advanced Efficiency2016
0.23[184][lower-alpha 3]BMW 320d (G20)2018
0.23[185]Tesla Model 32017
0.22[171]Porsche Taycan Turbo2019
0.22[186][lower-alpha 3]BMW 520d EfficientDynamics2017
0.22[187][lower-alpha 3]Mercedes-Benz CLA 180 BlueEfficiency Sedan2013
0.212 (according to some sources: 1:5 model test)[188][189][190]Tatra T77A1935[191]

[192] [193] [194]

0.19[195]General Motors EV11996
0.19[196]Volkswagen XL12013
Concept/experimental cars
CdAutomobileCalendar Year
0.29FSM Beskid Polish hatchback prototype1983
0.27Avion[197]1986
0.26Alfa Romeo Disco Volante1952
0.25BMW Kamm-Coupé1938 [198]
0.25Dymaxion Car1933
0.25SmILE (an experimental car)1996
0.23Volvo ECC1992 [199]
0.22BMW Vision EfficientDynamics Concept2009
0.22Citroën ECO 2000 Concept1981[200]
0.22Aurel Persu Streamliner1923[201]
0.20Opel Eco-Speedster2002[202]
0.20Loremo Concept2006
0.19Alfa Romeo B.A.T. 7 Concept1954
0.19Dodge Intrepid ESX Concept1995
0.19General Motors Ultralite1992
0.19Mercedes-Benz Bionic Concept[203](based on the boxfish)2005
0.170Chrysler Ghia Dart1955[204]
0.17Pininfarina Fiat 124 concept (Morelli shape)1978
0.168Daihatsu UFE-III Concept2005[205]
0.16General Motors Precept Concept (5 seats)[206]2000
0.16Edison2 Very Light Car, Automotive X Prize winner[207]2010
0.159Volkswagen 1-litre car Concept2002
0.157Li-ion Motors Wave II, Automotive X Prize winner[208]2010
0.15Schlörwagen[209]1939
0.15Aptera 2 Series 2e Prototype2011
0.15Keris RV Nakoela Team(Shell Eco-marathon) Prototype2015
0.149-0.150Urbee 2 [210]2013
0.147JCB Dieselmax land speed record holder2006
0.14Fiat Turbina Concept[211]1954
0.137Ford Probe V Concept1985
0.125Sunraycer, solar race car1987
0.12Reflex 1000, solar cycle1996[212]
0.12Panhard CD LM641964
0.117Summers Brothers Goldenrod Bonneville race car1965
0.08Fortis Saxonia (Shell Eco-marathon) Concept2007
0.072Alérion Supermileage (Shell Eco-marathon) Prototype2013
0.07Nuna, World Solar Challenge winner2001–2007
0.0512Ecorunner V (Shell Eco-marathon) Prototype2015[213]
0.048 Ecorunner VI (Shell Eco-marathon) Prototype2016
0.045 Ecorunner 8 (Shell Eco-marathon) Prototype2018

Drag area

While designers pay attention to the overall shape of the automobile, they also bear in mind that reducing the frontal area of the shape helps reduce the drag. The product of drag coefficient and area - drag area - is represented as CdA (or CxA), a multiplication of the Cd value by the area.

The term drag area derives from aerodynamics, where it is the product of some reference area (such as cross-sectional area, total surface area, or similar) and the drag coefficient. In 2003, Car and Driver magazine adopted this metric as a more intuitive way to compare the aerodynamic efficiency of various automobiles.

The force required to overcome drag is: Therefore: Where the drag coefficient and reference area have been collapsed into the drag area term. This allows direct estimation of the drag force at a given speed for any vehicle for which only the drag area is known and therefore easier comparison.

As drag area CdA is the fundamental value that determines power required for a given cruise speed it is a critical parameter for fuel consumption at a steady speed. This relation also allows an estimation of the new top speed of a car with a tuned engine,

Or the power required for a target top speed,

Average full-size passenger cars have a drag area of roughly 8.50 sq ft (0.790 m2). Reported drag areas range from the 1999 Honda Insight at 5.1 sq ft (0.47 m2) to the 2003 Hummer H2 at 26.5 sq ft (2.46 m2). The drag area of a bicycle (and rider) is also in the range of 6.5–7.5 sq ft (0.60–0.70 m2).[214]

Automobile examples of CdA[215]
CdA sqftCdA m2Automobile model
5.2 sq ft 0.48 m22019 Mercedes-Benz A 180 d (V177)[216][lower-alpha 3]
5.3 sq ft 0.49 m22013 Mercedes-Benz CLA 180 BlueEfficiency[217][lower-alpha 3]
5.4 sq ft 0.50 m21989 Opel Calibra (8 valve)
5.5 sq ft 0.51 m22015 Audi A4 2.0 TDI ultra (110 kW)[182][lower-alpha 3]
5.52 sq ft 0.513 m22019 Porsche Taycan Turbo[171]
5.6 sq ft 0.52 m22017 BMW 520d EfficientDynamics [218][lower-alpha 3]
5.6 sq ft 0.52 m21993 Mazda RX-7 FD (base model) [219]
5.70 sq ft 0.530 m21985 Subaru Alcyone/XT/Vortex
5.71 sq ft 0.530 m21990 Honda CR-X Si
5.74 sq ft 0.533 m22002 Acura NSX
5.76 sq ft 0.535 m21968 Toyota 2000GT
5.80 sq ft 0.539 m21986 Toyota MR2
5.81 sq ft 0.540 m21989 Mitsubishi Eclipse GSX
5.86 sq ft 0.544 m22001 Audi A2 1.2 TDI 3L
5.88 sq ft 0.546 m21990 Nissan 240SX / 200SX / 180SX
5.90 sq ft 0.548 m22015 BMW i8[220]
5.92 sq ft 0.550 m21994 Porsche 911 Speedster
5.95 sq ft 0.553 m21990 Mazda RX7
5.96 sq ft 0.554 m21993 Mazda RX-7 FD R1(R2)[219]
6.0 sq ft 0.56 m22001 Honda Insight[169]
6.00 sq ft 0.557 m21992 Subaru SVX
6.00 sq ft 0.557 m21970 Lamborghini Miura
6.05 sq ft 0.562 m22012 Tesla Model S P85[169]
6.08 sq ft 0.565 m22008 Nissan GTR
6.08 sq ft 0.565 m21989 Geo Metro[43]
6.13 sq ft 0.569 m21991 Acura NSX
6.17 sq ft 0.573 m21995 Lamborghini Diablo
6.19 sq ft 0.575 m21981 Citroën GSA X3 [66]
6.20 sq ft 0.576 m22014 Toyota Prius[169]
6.24 sq ft 0.580 m22004 Toyota Prius
6.27 sq ft 0.583 m21986 Porsche 911 Carrera
6.27 sq ft 0.583 m21992 Chevrolet Corvette
6.35 sq ft 0.590 m21999 Lotus Elise
6.37 sq ft 0.592 m22000 Vauxhall VX220 N/A
6.40 sq ft 0.595 m21990 Lotus Esprit
6.41 sq ft 0.596 m22003 Smart Roadster Coupé
6.54 sq ft 0.608 m21991 Saturn Sports Coupe
6.57 sq ft 0.610 m21985 Chevrolet Corvette
6.63 sq ft 0.616 m22001 Audi A2
6.66 sq ft 0.619 m21996 Citroën Saxo
6.70 sq ft 0.622 m22014 Chevrolet Volt[169]
6.77 sq ft 0.629 m21995 BMW M3
6.79 sq ft 0.631 m21993 Toyota Corolla DX
6.80 sq ft 0.632 m22007 BMW 335i Coupe
6.81 sq ft 0.633 m21991 Subaru Legacy
6.89 sq ft 0.640 m2[221]2019 Renault Clio V
6.90 sq ft 0.641 m21993 Saturn Wagon
6.93 sq ft 0.644 m21982 DMC DeLorean
6.94 sq ft 0.645 m22003 Smart Roadster
6.96 sq ft 0.647 m21988 Porsche 944 S
7.00 sq ft 0.650 m22013 Mercedes-Benz CLA250[169]
7.02 sq ft 0.652 m21992 BMW 325I
7.04 sq ft 0.654 m21991 Honda Civic EX
7.06 sq ft 0.656 m22004 Vauxhall VX220 Turbo
7.10 sq ft 0.660 m21995 Saab 900
7.11 sq ft 0.661 m21991 Ford Thunderbird LX
7.13 sq ft 0.662 m21970 Citroën SM[66]
7.14 sq ft 0.663 m21995 Subaru Legacy L
7.20 sq ft 0.669 m21995 Nissan Maxima GLE
7.34 sq ft 0.682 m22001 Honda Civic
7.39 sq ft 0.687 m21994 Honda Accord EX
7.4 sq ft 0.69 m22018 BMW X1 sDrive18i [222][lower-alpha 3]
7.48 sq ft 0.695 m21993 Chevrolet Camaro Z28
7.57 sq ft 0.703 m21992 Toyota Camry
7.63 sq ft 0.709 m21974 Citroën CX[66]
7.69 sq ft 0.714 m21994 Chrysler LHS
7.72 sq ft 0.717 m21993 Subaru Impreza
7.80 sq ft 0.725 m22012 Nissan Leaf SL[169]
8.02 sq ft 0.745 m22005 Bugatti Veyron
8.1 sq ft 0.75 m22016 Renault Zoe[223]
8.70 sq ft 0.808 m21990 Volvo 740 Turbo
8.70 sq ft 0.808 m21992 Ford Crown Victoria
8.71 sq ft 0.809 m21991 Buick LeSabre Limited
8.79 sq ft 0.817 m21956 Citroën DS Spécial [66]
9.54 sq ft 0.886 m21992 Chevrolet Caprice Wagon
9.95 sq ft 0.924 m22016 Chrysler Pacifica[224]
10.7 sq ft 0.99 m21992 Chevrolet Blazer
11.6 sq ft 1.08 m22005 Ford Escape Hybrid
11.7 sq ft 1.09 m21993 Jeep Grand Cherokee
12.2 sq ft 1.13 m21949 Nash Airflyte
13.0 sq ft 1.21 m22019 Ram 1500[225]
16.8 sq ft 1.56 m22006 Hummer H3
17.4 sq ft 1.62 m21995 Land Rover Discovery
26.5 sq ft 2.46 m22003 Hummer H2
Limited production cars
CdA sqftCdA m2Automobile model
3.00 sq ft 0.279 m22011 Volkswagen XL1
3.95 sq ft 0.367 m21996 GM EV1
Concept/experimental cars
CdA sqftCdA m2Automobile model
0.21 sq ft 0.020 m2Pac-car II[226]
2.04 sq ft 0.190 m22011 Aptera 2 Series[227]
2.10 sq ft 0.195 m22013 Urbee 2[228]
2.50 sq ft 0.232 m21986 Twike[229]
2.54 sq ft 0.236 m22002 Opel Eco-Speedster [230]
2.69 sq ft 0.250 m22009 Loremo
2.78 sq ft 0.258 m22010 Edison2 Very Light Car [231]
3.27 sq ft 0.304 m21987 Renault VESTA II[232]
4.72 sq ft 0.439 m22014 Volkswagen XL Sport[233]
5.00 sq ft 0.465 m22005 Mercedes-Benz Bionic[234]

See also

Notes
  1. North American market
  2. 0.30 with range extender
  3. European market

References
  1. Wang, Brian (2009-03-16). "Reducing Drag on Cars and Trucks by 15-18%". Next Big Future. Archived from the original on 2018-01-29. Retrieved 2018-01-28.
  2. Turner, Mike. "Aerocivic - Honda Civic modifications for maximum gas mileage -". aerocivic. Retrieved 2018-01-28.
  3. Guinn, Wayne D. "Camaro Spoiler Equipment". Camaro - Untold Secrets. US. Archived from the original on 2000-05-19.
  4. Davis, Marlan (February 2009). "Aerodynamic Tips and Tricks You Can Use for Better Performance". Hot Rod Magazine. US. Archived from the original on 2012-04-22.
  5. "Mini-experiment: the wrath of roof racks". MetroMPG. US. 2007-03-07. Retrieved 2018-11-13.
  6. Dragani, Rachelle (2013-08-04). "These Mud Flaps Can Help Trucks Slash Fuel Costs". Popular Mechanics. US. Retrieved 2020-01-14.
  7. Physics for Scientists and Engineers, p. 448, at Google Books
  8. "Reflections on side mirrors: testing drag vs. MPG". MetroMPG.com. 2006-08-31. Retrieved 2018-12-07.
  9. The Aerodynamics of Heavy Vehicles: Trucks, Buses, and Trains, Volume 1, p. 490, at Google Books
  10. "First drive review: Porsche Panamera Sport Turismo". Autocar. 2012-12-07. Retrieved 2013-03-01.
  11. "Estimation of The Drag of a Roof Mounted Antenna (AU Ford Falcon)". Virtual V8. Australia. September 2005. Retrieved 2019-03-03.
  12. "What is an Air Deflector?". wiseGEEK. US. Retrieved 2019-03-03.
  13. Browand, Fred (2005-10-10). "Reducing Aerodynamic Drag and Fuel Consumption" (PDF). US: Stanford University. Retrieved 2019-03-03.
  14. Ali, Hussain. "Drag Reduction on a Production Vehicle" (PDF). UK: Coventry University.
  15. Bridger, Gabriel (2010-12-13). "The 1M's Air Curtain in Detail". BimmerFile. Retrieved 2018-02-10.
  16. "How Air Curtains on F-150 Help Reduce Aerodynamic Drag and Aid Fuel Efficiency" (Press release). 2015-07-15. Retrieved 2018-02-10.
  17. "Designing for design's sake—with aerodynamics built in" (Press release). Honda. Archived from the original on 2018-02-20. Retrieved 2018-02-20.
  18. Korff, Walter Henry (1980). Designing tomorrow's cars: from concept, step-by-step, to detail design. M-C Publications. ISBN 9780960385003.
  19. Popular Mechanics Sep 1981, p. 158, at Google Books
  20. Lögdberg, Ola (2008). "Turbulent Boundary Layer Separation and Control". Stockholm: KTH Royal Institute of Technology. Retrieved 2019-03-03.
  21. Hoyt, Wade (October 1985). "Shaping up tomorrow's cars". Popular Mechanics: 131.
  22. König, Wolfgang (2008-04-22). "Die Tops und Flops im Windkanal". Auto Bild (in German). Axel Springer. Retrieved 2019-09-10.
  23. "Technique of the VW Beetle". Maggiolinoweb.it. Retrieved 2009-10-24.
  24. "The Mayfield Homepage - Coefficient of Drag for Selected Vehicles". Mayfco.com. Retrieved 2009-10-24.
  25. "Volkswagen Cabriolet MK1 Specs". Cabby-Info.com. Archived from the original on 2010-02-05. Retrieved 2010-01-12.
  26. "Lancia Aprilia Tipo 97 technical specifications". carfolio.com. Retrieved 2012-03-13.
  27. "Lincoln Town Car technical data". automobile-catalog.com. Retrieved 2018-09-14.
  28. Visnic, Bill (2017-12-18). "Level Zero hero". SAE International. Archived from the original on 2019-05-29. Retrieved 2019-05-29.
  29. "Report on 2nd generation Grand Marquis updates". nwitimes.com. 2018-02-16. Retrieved 2018-09-14.
  30. "1998 SUBARU FORESTER S". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
  31. "Chevrolet Astro Van (1996)". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
  32. "2002 Ariel Atom Specifications". getcarspecs.com. Retrieved 2012-10-12.
  33. "1995 Ford Aerostar Specs". motortrend.com. Retrieved 2010-08-18.
  34. "1981 Ford Escort". carfolio.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
  35. "2016 Tacoma Product Information" (Press release). US: Toyota. 2015. Retrieved 2019-05-19.
  36. "Lincoln Mark VII technical data". automobile-catalog.com. Retrieved 2018-09-14.
  37. "Subaru Forester specs available". CarsDirect. Retrieved 2009-10-24.
  38. "Evworld Feature: Giving The New Beetle Wings:Vw | Rogers | Beetle | Wing | Drag | Porsche | Volkswagen | Thiokol | Utah | Fuel | Economy | Biodiesel | Diesel | Aerodynamics". Evworld.com. Retrieved 2010-12-07.
  39. "Aero Testing - Part 3". AutoSpeed. Archived from the original on 2009-11-21. Retrieved 2009-10-24.
  40. "Mercury Grand Marquis technical data". automobile-catalog.com. Retrieved 2018-09-14.
  41. "Mercury Grand Marquis technical data". automobile-catalog.com. Retrieved 2018-09-14.
  42. Daily Mail Motor Review 1984
  43. "Ecomodder Wiki Vehicle Coefficient of Drag". Archived from the original on 2010-04-25. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
  44. "Lincoln Town Car technical data". automobile-catalog.com. Retrieved 2018-09-14.
  45. "Subaru Canada". Subaru.ca. Retrieved 2009-10-24.
  46. Ralf J. F. Kieselbach, Stromlinienautos in Europa und USA, Kohlhammer Verlag, Stuttgart 1982, page 19
  47. "Toyota Celica GT (1995)". theautochannel.com. Archived from the original on 2010-04-12. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
  48. Smith, David C. (December 1984). "Golf, Jetta much improved and, with them, VWA's hopes". Ward's Auto World.
  49. "All-new 2019 Ram 1500 – No Compromise Truck, Leading in Durability, Technology and Efficiency" (Press release). FCA North America. 2018-01-15. Retrieved 2019-09-22.
  50. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2012-07-21. Retrieved 2012-07-28.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) Data as published on the Team website after 2012 Le Mans Race after the addition of rear view mirrors
  51. "Ford Windstar 1st gen technical data". automobile-catalog.com. Retrieved 2018-09-14.
  52. "Ford Windstar 2nd gen technical data". automobile-catalog.com. Retrieved 2018-09-14.
  53. "2002 Renault Clio II 1.5 dCi 80 technical specifications and data - 3 door 1.5 litre (1461 cc) S4 79.1 PS - Carfolio.com car specifications pages". Carfolio.com. Retrieved 2009-10-24.
  54. Ramsey, Jonathon (2009-03-26). "Tesla Model S: Kč970.000 (Kč970.000 (Kč970.000 ($50,000))) EV sedan seats seven, 300-mile range, 0-60 in 5.5s". autobloggreen. Archived from the original on 2009-03-27. Retrieved 2009-04-12.
  55. "Leichtbau ist nicht das Wichtigste" (in German). Auto, Motor und Sport. Da der Smart aufgrund seiner großen Frontfläche von 2,06 m2 einen hohen cW-Wert von 0,35 hat, verbraucht er im Vergleich zum niedrigen Gewicht vergleichsweise viel.
  56. "Toyota Previa LE S/C 1995". theautochannel.com. Archived from the original on 2010-05-06. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
  57. "1990 Toyota Previa". carfolio.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
  58. "1982 Toyota Celica Supra" (Press release). US: Toyota. 1981. Archived from the original on 2016-01-21. Retrieved 2018-05-26.
  59. "Nissan Altima GXE (1995)". theautochannel.com. Archived from the original on 2010-05-24. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
  60. "2002 Nissan Skyline R34 - R34 vs R35". importtuner.com. 2009-10-01. Retrieved 2014-10-01.
  61. "The Aerodynamics of the Saab Automobiles". Saab History. 2007-04-01. Retrieved 2016-08-05.
  62. "Saturn SL2 (1995)". theautochannel.com. Archived from the original on 2010-03-28. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
  63. "Subaru Canada". Subaru.ca. Retrieved 2009-10-24.
  64. "1995 SUBARU LEGACY L WAGON". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
  65. "1996 Toyota Corolla DX Wagon". theautochannel.com. Archived from the original on 1996-11-28. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
  66. "Aerodynamics". Le Double Chevron (#59). 1980.
  67. "Acura Integra GS-R (1994)". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
  68. "2004 Acura RSX Coupe Specs". automobilemag.com. Archived from the original on 2014-10-06. Retrieved 2014-10-01.
  69. "1964 Giulia 1600 Series 105". conceptcarz.com. Retrieved 2011-06-28.
  70. "Ford Escort ZX2 (1998)". theautochannel.com. Archived from the original on 2010-06-04. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
  71. "Ford Fusion specs available". CarsDirect. Retrieved 2009-10-24.
  72. "1995 NISSAN 200SX SE-R TWO-DOOR COUPE". motortrend.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
  73. "Saturn SL2 (1999)". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
  74. Paul, Rik (1996-10-02). "1997 Toyota Camry Road Test". Motor Trend. Retrieved 2018-12-04.
  75. "1990 Chevrolet Corsica Sales training Video". youtube.com. Retrieved 2011-01-15.
  76. "Review:2003 Toyota Matrix". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
  77. "1994 FORD TAURUS GL". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
  78. "Honda Civic DX Hatchback (1996)". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
  79. "Honda Civic EX Sedan (1996)". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
  80. "1995 NISSAN 240SX SE SPORT COUPE". motortrend.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
  81. "Nissan Altima GLE (1998)". theautochannel.com. Archived from the original on 2010-04-20. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
  82. Karel Rosenkranz, Tatra, Autoalbum 2002, page 107
  83. "Toyota Celica GT-S (2000)". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
  84. "Toyota Tercel DX (1995)". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
  85. "2019 Corolla Hatchback eBrochure" (PDF). US: Toyota. p. 22. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-05-17. Retrieved 2019-05-17.
  86. "Saturn SL1 (1996)". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
  87. "fiatcoupehistory". Archived from the original on 2009-08-04.
  88. "Toyota Tercel Reference - CdA List". Archived from the original on 2011-07-16. Retrieved 2010-07-15.
  89. "2011 Infiniti G Coupe Specifications". Infiniti USA. Archived from the original on 2010-12-05. Retrieved 2011-01-25.
  90. "2001 Kia Rio Specifications - View New Kia Rio 2001 Specs & Data at". Internetautoguide.com. Archived from the original on 2010-07-26. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
  91. "2010 Mazda 2 II (DE, facelift 2010) 1.5i (102 Hp) Automatic | Technical specs, data, fuel consumption, Dimensions". www.auto-data.net. Retrieved 2020-06-21.
  92. "TG meets the Pagani Huayra - BBC Top Gear". Topgear.com. 2012-06-08. Retrieved 2013-04-05.
  93. "1998 TOYOTA COROLLA LE". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
  94. "Corolla" (Press release). UK: Toyota. February 2019. Retrieved 2019-02-14.
  95. "Toyota Paseo (1996)". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
  96. "2017 Chevy Bolt EV Is Less of a Drag Than Originally Believed". Retrieved 2017-03-29.
  97. "Carfolio Car Specifications". Retrieved 2010-05-02.
  98. "Lotus Elan+2". Lotus. 1967 – via LotusElan.net.
  99. "Four of a Kind: The Alfa Romeo 164 and the "Type Four" Cars". ateupwithmotor.com. Archived from the original on 2011-07-07. Retrieved 2011-06-28.
  100. "The new BMW 3 Series Sedan" (Press release).
  101. "1996/1997 FORD TAURUS SHO". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
  102. "1996 FORD TAURUS GL SEDAN". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
  103. gtmash. "Honda Civic CRX - Car Cutaway - Modern Racer - Features". Modern Racer. Retrieved 2009-10-24.
  104. "2009 Nissan 370Z Coupe Specs". Nissan USA. 2009-08-31. Archived from the original on 2010-02-08. Retrieved 2009-10-24.
  105. "Vehicle Coefficient of Drag List - EcoModder". ecomodder.com. Retrieved 2017-12-09.
  106. "2003 Toyota Corolla Specs". motortrend.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
  107. "The New Corolla Model Range" (PDF) (Press release). Toyota Motor Europe. February 2019. Retrieved 2019-05-17.
  108. Sherman, Don (June 2014). "Five slippery cars enter a wind tunnel; one slinks out a winner" (PDF) (Press release). US: Tesla. Retrieved 2019-03-03.
  109. http://media.gm.com/media/us/en/gm/news.detail.html/content/Pages/news/us/en/2012/Sep/0925_cadillacATS.html
  110. Voss, Arv. "Chevy's new Impala provides a breath of fresh air". SFGate. Retrieved 2018-02-09.
  111. "Meet the Focus". Archived from the original on 2018-02-26.
  112. toyotanews.pressroom.toyota.com/article_download.cfm?article_id=2633
  113. "1992 Alfa Romeo 155 1.8 Twin Spark technical specifications". carfolio.com. Retrieved 2011-06-28.
  114. http://www.audi.de/content/dam/ngw/product/used_cars/a4/pdf/a4b7/2007_03_a4_b7_20tdi.pdf
  115. "The BMW i3" (Press release). BMW. 2013. Retrieved 2018-05-24.
  116. "Mini wind tunnel fine-tunes GM designs". Automotive News. 2015-11-30. Retrieved 2018-12-16.
  117. "Fiat Tipo - Al lancio le Opening Edition benzina e diesel". Quattroruote (in Italian). Italy. 2015-11-28. Retrieved 2016-12-27.
  118. "Ford Escape Hybrid". All-about-car-selection.com. Archived from the original on 2011-07-07. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
  119. "All-new Ford Focus C-Max - Ford Forums - Mustang Forum, Ford Trucks and Cars". Ford Forums. Retrieved 2010-04-23.
  120. "Vehicle Specifications 2005 Honda Accord Hybrid". Honda Owners Site. Retrieved 2019-03-03.
  121. "Kia Niro Exterior". Kia Motors. Retrieved 2017-11-20.
  122. Long, Brian (2000). Lexus: The Challenge to Create the Finest Automobile. Cardiff: Veloce Publishing. pp. 19–20. ISBN 1-901295-81-8.
  123. "2010 Mazda3 Specification Deck" (PDF). Mazda Motor of America, Inc. 2009-03-24. Retrieved 2018-11-25.
  124. "Nissan Leaf Zero Emission" (PDF) (Press release). UK: Nissan. 2013-07-01. Retrieved 2016-02-25.
  125. "2014 Toyota Corolla Product Information" (Press release). US: Toyota. 2013-08-27. Retrieved 2018-12-07.
  126. "2020 Corolla eBrochure". US: Toyota. p. 25. Archived from the original on 2019-05-17. Retrieved 2019-05-17.
  127. "2000 Toyota Echo Review". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
  128. "Toyota Echo 4-Door (2000)". theautochannel.com. Retrieved 2010-05-02.
  129. https://toyota.pressroom.com.au/press_kit_detail.asp?clientID=2&navSectionID=6&categoryID=1000&kitID=25
  130. https://pressroom.toyota.com/article_download.cfm?article_id=2637
  131. "Dream Machines Number 39 – Volvo C70" (PDF). Sweden: Volvo. Retrieved 2018-11-11 – via Volvo Club UK.
  132. "Chrysler Concorde Specifications - Dimensions". US: Chrysler. Archived from the original on 2001-01-10. Retrieved 2018-12-31.
  133. Tan, Danny (21 July 2016). "Perodua Bezza officially launched – first ever sedan, 1.0 VVT-i and 1.3 Dual VVT-i, RM37k to RM51k EEV". Malaysia: paultan.org. Retrieved 2019-06-29. Cite magazine requires |magazine= (help)
  134. "2006 Chevrolet Corvette" (Press release). US: General Motors. 2005. Retrieved 2018-07-05.
  135. "The All-new 2013 Dodge Dart Redefines Performance" (Press release). FCA US. 2012-09-01. Retrieved 2019-07-05.
  136. "New Astra Price/Specification Guide" (PDF). UK: Vauxhall. p. 23. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-03-02. Retrieved 2019-03-02.
  137. https://newspress-vwusamedia.s3.amazonaws.com/documents%2Foriginal%2F6247-1422603158536a85ba5b823.pdf
  138. http://media.gm.com/media/us/en/chevrolet/vehicles/volt/2011.tab1.html
  139. Hutton, Ray (July 2000). "Audi A2". Car and Driver. Retrieved 2018-12-16.
  140. "New FIAT Croma in UK" (Press release). Fiat Auto (UK) Limited. 2005-08-01. Retrieved 2018-12-16.
  141. Csere, Csaba (May 2002). "2003 Honda Civic Hybrid". Car and Driver. Retrieved 2018-12-16.
  142. "All-New Honda Insight Hybrid Vehicle Introduced in Japan" (Press release). Tokyo, Japan: Honda Motor Co. 2009-02-05. Retrieved 2019-01-09.
  143. Markus, Frank (2010-11-15). "First Look: 2011 Hyundai Elantra - Motor Trend". Motor Trend. Motor Trend Group, LLC. Retrieved 2018-12-16.
  144. Walton, Chris (2010-08-20). "2011 Hyundai Sonata Hybrid Road Test". Edmunds. Retrieved 2018-12-16.
  145. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2006-04-08. Retrieved 2006-04-08.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  146. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2014-06-09. Retrieved 2014-06-09.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  147. "Special Report: Imports '87". Popular Mechanics. February 1987. p. 126.
  148. Hucho, edited by Wolf-Heinrich (1986). Aerodynamics of road vehicles : from fluid mechanics to vehicle engineering. London: Butterworths. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-408-01422-9.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)
  149. Schütz, Thomas. Hucho - Aerodynamik des Automobils: Strömungsmechanik, Wärmetechnik, Fahrdynamik, Komfort. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8348-1919-2.
  150. Winfield, Barry (March 2006). "2007 Toyota Camry SE" (PDF). Car and Driver. Hearst Magazine Media. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-06-08. Retrieved 2019-01-09.
  151. "2017 Toyota Camry Product Information Sheet" (Press release). Archived from the original on 2019-01-09. Retrieved 2019-01-09.
  152. Nate Martinez. "First Test:2013 Ford Fusion". motortrend.com. Retrieved 2014-05-28.
  153. "Ford Unveils All-New Focus" (PDF) (Press release). The Ford Motor Company. 2018-04-10. Retrieved 2018-04-11.
  154. "All-New 2017 Hyundai Elantra Brings Advanced Technology and Premium Convenience to the Compact Car Segment" (Press release). Imperial Beach, California: Hyundai Motor America. 2016-01-26. Retrieved 2018-12-18.
  155. "New 2020 Hyundai Sonata Makes Its North American Debut at the New York International Auto Show" (Press release). New York City. 2019-04-17. Retrieved 2019-07-05.
  156. "Mazda6" (PDF) (Press release) (in German). Germany: Mazda. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-01-20.
  157. "Mercedes-Benz S-Class, W 220 series (1998 to 2005)".
  158. Edward Loh (2011-12-02). "First Drive:2013 Subaru BRZ". Motortrend.com. Retrieved 2013-04-04.
  159. "Attainable Premium, Actualized: All-New 2019 Toyota Avalon Beams Effortless Sophistication, Style, and Exhilaration at the 2018 North American International Auto Show | Toyota" (Press release). 2018-01-15. Retrieved 2018-02-08.
  160. "The new Jetta - world premiere - North American International Auto Show" (Press release).
  161. Interone Worldwide GmbH (2008-06-17). "BMW 3 Series Sedan : Technical data". Bmw.com. Archived from the original on 2009-10-13. Retrieved 2009-10-24.
  162. "Jaguar XE (2015) technical details and prices confirmed". Car. 2014-10-01. Retrieved 2014-10-15.
  163. "Mazda Launches Second SKYACTIV Model in Japan: Facelifted Axela".
  164. "Instantly thrilling: The new Mercedes-Benz C-Class Coupé". Mercedes. 2015-08-13. Archived from the original on 2016-03-04.
  165. "2019 Nissan Altima Press Kit" (Press release). US: Nissan. 2018-03-28. Retrieved 2018-06-22.
  166. "All-new Nissan Sylphy unveiled at Auto Shanghai 2019" (Press release). Shanghai: Nissan. 2019-04-15. Retrieved 2019-04-05.
  167. https://www.topspeed.com/cars/car-news/calibraproof-that-old-school-still-rocks-ar14819.html
  168. "SUV Coupé for the e-tron Family: The Audi e-tron Sportback" (Press release). 2019-11-20.
  169. Sherman, Don. "Drag Queens: Aerodynamics Compared" (PDF). Car and Driver (June 2014). Hearst Communications. Retrieved 2017-12-29.
  170. "2010 Toyota Prius Product Information | Toyota". Retrieved 2017-10-09.
  171. ""Aerodynamics: The best value of all current Porsche models"" (Press release). 2019-09-04. Retrieved 2019-10-14.
  172. "Vehicle Coefficient of Drag List". EcoModder. Retrieved 2017-11-16.
  173. "Model X Tesla Motors". Teslamotors.com. Retrieved 2018-02-13.
  174. "Technical Data" (Press release). Škoda. 2020-03-16. Retrieved 2020-04-22.
  175. "2017 Hyundai Ioniq Hybrid and Electric Models Soon to Be Available to U.S. Consumers" (Press release). Hyundai Motor America. 2017-02-14. Retrieved 2018-01-30.
  176. "All-New Kia Optima Hybrid Unveiled At 2016 Chicago Auto Show" (Press release). Kia Motors America. 2016-02-11. Retrieved 2018-02-08.
  177. "Die technischen Daten der S-Klasse Limousine" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-11-11. Retrieved 2018-11-11.
  178. "C-Class awarded Environmental Certificate" (Press release). Archived from the original on 2014-09-27.
  179. "Slippery Tesla Model S triumphs in wind-tunnel shootout". Ecomento. 2014-05-30. Retrieved 2014-10-15.
  180. Seabaugh, Christian. "2016 Toyota Prius First Drive Review". MotorTrend. Retrieved 2015-11-18.
  181. Krivevski, Blagojce. "Xpeng Starts Delivery of P7 EV Sports Sedan". Retrieved 2020-06-28.
  182. "Audi A4" (Press release). Audi AG. Retrieved 2018-01-27.
  183. "Alfa Romeo at the 2016 Paris International Motor Show" (Press release). Retrieved 2018-01-29.
  184. "Specifications of the all-new BMW 3 Series Sedan, valid from 10/2018" (Press release). 2018-10-02. Archived from the original on 2019-03-17. Retrieved 2019-03-17.
  185. "Press Kit" (Press release). Tesla. Retrieved 2018-03-05.
  186. Disdale, James (2017-01-12). "New BMW 5 Series 2017 review". Auto Express. UK: Dennis Publishing Ltd. Retrieved 2018-01-25.
  187. Kable, Greg (2013-02-07). "Mercedes-Benz CLA180 cheats the wind". Autoweek. Crain Communications, Inc. Retrieved 2018-11-28.
  188. Some sources also claim this figure relates to a T87 model test not T77a"Tatra T600 Tatraplan". www.tatraplan.co.uk. Retrieved 2014-08-28.
  189. Ivan Margolius, 'Model Behaviour', Octane, February 2012, pp. 38-9
  190. Ivan Margolius & John G Henry, 'Tatra - The Legacy of Hans Ledwinka', Veloce, Dorchester, 2015, page 124
  191. Optimization and computational fluid dynamics, Gàbor Janiga, Springer, 2008, page 196
  192. "Cheating Wind - Aerodynamic Tech and Buyers Guide". europeancarweb.com. Retrieved 2008-03-13.
  193. "Tatra 77 aerodynamic car (czech)". Retrieved 2010-05-17.
  194. Winning the oil endgame: innovation for profits, jobs and security, Amory B. Lovins, Rocky Mountain Institute, 2004, page 53
  195. Brown, Aaron (2016-03-16). "Here's the story behind GM's revolutionary electric car from the 90s that disappeared". Business Insider. Insider Inc. Retrieved 2018-11-28.
  196. ZOELLTER, JUERGEN. "2014 Volkswagen XL1". Car and Driver. Hearst Communications, Inc. Retrieved 2017-12-25.
  197. "Original Avion Specifications - 1986". 100 mpg plus. 2007. Archived from the original on 2008-11-20. vehicle set the 1986 Guinness World Record for fuel efficiency at 103.7 mpg
  198. Ihrig, Ron (2004-12-03). "Part 3: Production, Physics, Politics – Only the Strong Survive". Car Design News. German Design History. Archived from the original on 2011-01-11. Retrieved 2016-03-25.
  199. Volvo Car Corporation (2005-03-01). "Volvo ECC – the car that gave the world a preview of Volvo's future already back in 1992". media.volvocars.com (Press release). Retrieved 2017-12-15.
  200. "50 000 km avec une Citroën Ax diesel, mon avis d'utilisateur ainsi que son coût kilométrique réel". Generationsfutures.chez-alice.fr. Archived from the original on 2010-10-28. Retrieved 2010-12-07.
  201. http://www.auto-bild.ro/headline/aerodinamica-automobilelor-si-inventia-inginerului-roman-aurel-persu-43578.html
  202. "Opel 2002 Eco-Speedster". Retrieved 2015-09-30.
  203. Frank Giovinazzi (2005-06-14). "Mercedes Bionic Concept Car". Carbuyersnotebook.com. Archived from the original on 2011-06-13. Retrieved 2010-12-07.
  204. Motor Life-1958
  205. "Daihatsu UFE-III | Concept Cars". Diseno-art.com. Retrieved 2010-12-07.
  206. http://www.electrifyingtimes.com/gmprecept.html
  207. Annoy as little air as possible, Edison2 blog
  208. "Li-ion Motors Wave II". Li-ionmotors.com. Archived from the original on 2010-12-18. Retrieved 2010-12-07.
  209. "The Bizarre German Car That Was Ultra-Aerodynamic—And Totally Impractical". Wired. 2014-09-04. Retrieved 2014-10-15.
  210. Bargmann, Joe (2013-11-04). "Urbee 2, the 3D-Printed Car That Will Drive Across the Country". Popular Mechanics. Retrieved 2014-02-10.
  211. Ludvigsen, Karl. "Turbine Speed with Style". Hemmings Daily. Retrieved 2019-03-12.
  212. "D & H Enterprises, composites and fibreglass technology". Dhenterprises.com.au. Retrieved 2010-12-07.
  213. "TU Delft students build a car with the lowest air resistance in the world". Delft University of Technology. 2015-04-20. Retrieved 2015-04-29.
  214. "(a bicycle's lower frontal area is offset by a higher drag coefficient)". Lafn.org. Archived from the original on 2011-07-17. Retrieved 2011-06-28.
  215. "The Mayfield Company Homepage - Coefficient of Drag Tables and Curves". Mayfco.com. Retrieved 2010-12-07.
  216. "World record defended: The new A-Class Sedan: none is more aerodynamic" (Press release). Stuttgart, Germany: Daimler AG. 2018-07-23. Archived from the original on 2019-05-18. Retrieved 2019-05-18.
  217. Birch, Stuart (2013-03-18). "Mercedes' 2014 CLA is the new low-Cd king". SAE International. Archived from the original on 2018-02-01. Retrieved 2018-01-31.
  218. "Technical Specifications BMW 520d EfficientDynamics Edition, valid from 03/2017" (Press release). BMW. 2017-01-19. Retrieved 2018-01-28.
  219. http://www.autospeed.com/cms/A_108677/article.html?popularArticle
  220. https://arstechnica.com/cars/2015/07/sports-car-with-a-social-conscience-ars-reviews-the-bmw-i8/2/
  221. "The All-new Renault Clio: The icon of a new generation fully revealed at Geneva Motor Show" (Press release). 2019-03-05. Retrieved 2019-10-21.
  222. "Specifications of the BMW X1, valid from 09/2018" (Press release). BMW Group. 2018-05-11. Retrieved 2019-03-29.
  223. "Renault Zoe Technical Specifications" (Press release). Renault Press. 2016-11-30. Archived from the original on 2018-02-19.
  224. Brooke, Lindsay (2016-01-11). "2017 Pacifica is first hybrid minivan, rides on all-new FCA platform - SAE International". articles.sae.org. SAE International. Retrieved 2019-01-23.
  225. "2019 Ram 1500 – More Space. More Storage. More Technology". www.ramtrucks.com. Archived from the original on 2018-01-16. Retrieved 2018-02-24.
  226. Santin, J. J.; Onder, C.H.; Bernard, J.; Isler, D.; Kobler, P.; Kolb, F.; Weidmann, N.; Guzzella, L. (2007). The world's most fuel efficient vehicle : design and development of Pac Car II. Zürich: vdf, Hochschulverlag AG and der ETH. p. 113. ISBN 978-3-7281-3134-8.
  227. "Power Consumption - IGSS'13". Retrieved 2015-09-30.
  228. McLeod, Mike (2013-05-26). "The Future of Automotive Design?". Design Engineering. Retrieved 2015-09-25.
  229. "Program: hpvplot (updated 11/12/07)". Ent.ohiou.edu. Archived from the original on 2008-12-16. Retrieved 2010-12-07.
  230. "Opel 2002 Eco-Speedster". Retrieved 2015-09-30.
  231. "350 MPGe at $20,000?". Retrieved 2015-09-30.
  232. Maroselli, Yves (2014-09-18). "Renault : la Vesta 2 plus performante en 1987 que l'Eolab en 2015". Le Point (in French). Retrieved 2018-02-08.
  233. "VW reveals 197bhp XL Sport". TopGear.com. Retrieved 2020-01-21.
  234. "Specs of Mercedes-Benz Bionic Car Concept (2005)". engineact. Archived from the original on 2014-04-24. Retrieved 2013-05-11.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.