Solar energy conversion

Quantum photoelectrochemistry calculation of photoinduced interfacial electron transfer in a dye-sensitized solar cell.

Solar energy conversion describes technologies devoted to the transformation of solar energy to other (useful) forms of energy, including electricity, fuel, and heat.[1] It covers light-harvesting technologies including traditional semiconductor photovoltaic devices (PVs), emerging photovoltaics,[2][3][4] solar fuel generation via electrolysis, artificial photosynthesis, and related forms of photocatalysis directed at the generation of energy rich molecules.[5]

Fundamental electro-optical aspects in several emerging solar energy conversion technologies for generation of both electricity (photovoltaics) and solar fuels constitute an active area of current research.[6]

History

Solar cells started in 1876 with William Grylls Adams along with an undergraduate student of his. A French scientist, by the name of Edmond Becquerel, first discovered the photovoltaic effect in the summer of 1839.[7] He theorized that certain elements on the periodic table, such as silicon, reacted to the exposure of sunlight in very unusual ways. Solar power is created when solar radiation is converted to heat or electricity. English electrical engineer Willoughby Smith, between 1873 and 1876, discovered that when selenium is exposed to light, it produced a high amount of electricity. The use of selenium was highly inefficient, but it proved Becquerel’s theory that light could be converted into electricity through the use of various semi-metals on the periodic table, that were later labeled as photo-conductive material. By 1953, Calvin Fuller, Gerald Pearson, and Daryl Chapin, discovered the use of silicon to produce solar cells was extremely efficient and produced a net charge that far exceeded that of selenium. Today solar power has many uses, from heating, electrical production, thermal processes, water treatment and storage of power that is highly prevalent in the world of renewable energy.

Background

      By the 1960’s solar power was the standard for powering space-bound satellites. Early 1970’s solar cell technology became cheaper and more available ($20/watt). Between 1970 and 1990, solar power became more commercially operated. Railroad crossings, oil rigs, space stations, microwave towers, aircraft, etc. Now, houses and businesses all over the world use solar cells to power electrical devices with a wide variety of uses. Solar power is the dominant technology in the renewable energy field, primarily due to its high efficiency and cost-effectiveness. By the early 90’s, photovoltaic conversion had reached an unprecedented new height. Scientists used solar cells constructed of highly conductive photovoltaic materials such as gallium, indium, phosphide and gallium arsenide that increased total efficiency by over 30%. By the end of the century, scientists created a special type of solar cells that converted upwards of 36% of the sunlight it collected into usable energy. These developments built tremendous momentum for not only solar power, but for renewable energy technologies around the world.

Electricity Production

Photovoltaics (PV) use silicon solar cells to convert the energy of sunlight into electricity. They operate under the photoelectric effect which results in the emission of electrons. Concentrated solar power (CSP) uses lenses or mirrors and tracking devices to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. Solar power is anticipated to be the world’s largest source of electricity by 2050. Solar power plants, such as Ivanpah Solar Power Facility in the Mojave Desert, produce over 392MW of power. Solar projects exceeding 1 GW (1 billion watts) are in development and are anticipated to be the future of solar power in the US.

Thermal Energy

The heat collected by the sun is highly intensive and radioactive. The sun bombards the earth with billions of charged nanoparticles with an immense amount of energy stored in them. This heat can be used for water heating, space heating, space cooling and process heat generation. Many steam generation systems have adapted to using sunlight as a primary source for heating feed water, a development that has greatly increased the overall efficiency of boilers and many other types of waste heat recovery systems. Solar cookers use sunlight for cooking, drying and pasteurization. Solar distillation is used for water treatment processes to create potable drinking water, which has been an extremely powerful player in providing countries in need with relief efforts through the use of advancing technology.

Electricity Production

Photovoltaics (PV) use silicon solar cells to convert the energy of sunlight into electricity. Operates under the photoelectric effect which results in the emission of electrons.[8] Concentrated solar power (CSP) Uses lenses or mirrors and tracking devices to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. Solar power is anticipated to be the world’s largest source of electricity by 2050. Solar power plants, such as Ivanpah Solar Power Facility in the Mojave Desert produces over 392MW of power. Solar projects exceeding 1 GW (1 billion watts) are in development and are anticipated to be the future of solar power in the US

Economic Development

Very cost-effective technology. Solar installations are becoming cheaper and more readily available to countries where energy demand is high, but supply is low due to economic circumstances. Provide areas affected by natural disaster with cheap, clean energy. 1 Gigawatt solar power plants can produce almost 10 times as much power as a fossil fuel combustion power plant for more than half the cost.[9] Projected to be the leader of energy production by the year 2050.

Societal Impact

      Creates jobs for local communities. Construction, design and operation of solar power facilities. Provides clean energy for hundreds of thousands of homes and businesses. Drastically reduces the cost for energy consumption.[10]

Environmental Impact

      Installations can destroy and/or relocate ecological habitats.[9] Covers and huge amount of area that may be protected land Solar facilities constructed on Indian reservations have interrupted Native American traditions, practices and the lives of various animal life on the reservations. Causes some degree of direct and/or indirect defragmenting of various habitats.[11]

Future of the industry

Overview of the basic science, construction, design and operation of solar technologies. Societal, environmental, economic and local community impacts that solar technology can have. Projections/future of renewable energy, specifically solar power, around the world. Increased standards of living, population control, readily available energy supplies, increased technological and scientific development among third world countries. Significantly reduced emissions and pollution in Earth’s atmosphere.[12]

References

  1. ↑ Crabtree, G. W.; Lewis, N. S. (2007). "Solar Energy Conversion". Physics Today 60, 3, 37. doi:10.1063/1.2718755.
  2. ↑ Light-Induced Redox Reactions in Nanocrystalline Systems, Anders Hagfeldt and Michael Graetzel, Chem. Rev., 95, 1, 49-68 (1995)
  3. ↑ Materials interface engineering for solution-processed photovoltaics, Michael Graetzel, René A. J. Janssen, David B. Mitzi, Edward H. Sargent, Nature (insight review) 488, 304–312 (2012) doi:10.1038/nature11476
  4. ↑ Semiconductor Photochemistry And Photophysics, Vol. 10, V Ramamurthy, Kirk S Schanze, CRC Press, ISBN 9780203912294 (2003)
  5. ↑ Magnuson, Ann; Anderlund, Magnus; Johansson, Olof; Lindblad, Peter; Lomoth, Reiner; Polivka, Tomas; Ott, Sascha; Stensjö, Karin; Styring, Stenbjörn; Sundström, Villy; Hammarström, Leif (December 2009). "Biomimetic and Microbial Approaches to Solar Fuel Generation". Accounts of Chemical Research 42 (12): 1899–1909. doi:10.1021/ar900127h.
  6. ↑ Ponseca Jr., Carlito S.; Chábera, Pavel; Uhlig, Jens; Persson, Petter; Sundström, Villy (August 2017). "Ultrafast Electron Dynamics in Solar Energy Conversion". Chemical Reviews 117 : 10940–11024. doi:10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00807.
  7. ↑ Belessiotis & Papanicolaou, V.G & E. (2012). "History of Solar Energy". Comprehensive Renewable Energy. 3: 85–102.
  8. ↑ "Spectroscopy and solar energy – in honor to Professor Renata Reisfeld". Journal of Luminescence. 193: 10–12. 2018-01-01. doi:10.1016/j.jlumin.2017.05.041. ISSN 0022-2313.
  9. 1 2 "The environmental and cost implications of solar energy preferences in Renewable Portfolio Standards". Energy Policy. 86: 250–261. 2015-11-01. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2015.06.039. ISSN 0301-4215.
  10. ↑ Reddy & Holdren & Khatib & Turkenburg, Amuyla & John & Hisham & Wim (2000). "Energy and Social Issues" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme.
  11. ↑ Hernandez, Rebecca R.; Hoffacker, Madison K.; Murphy-Mariscal, Michelle L.; Wu, Grace C.; Allen, Michael F. (2015-11-03). "Solar energy development impacts on land cover change and protected areas". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 112 (44): 13579–13584. doi:10.1073/pnas.1517656112. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 4640750. PMID 26483467.
  12. ↑ Beckley, Dan. "Improving Air Quality with Solar Energy" (PDF). eere.


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