Sixty-miler

Sixty-miler (60-miler) is the colloquial name for the ships that were used in the coastal coal trade of New South Wales. The "sixty milers" delivered coal to Sydney Harbour from ports and ocean jetties to the north and south of Sydney. The name refers to the approximate distance by sea from the Hunter River to Sydney.[1][2]

A "sixty-miler" entering Newcastle under ballast in 1923

Coastal coal-carrying trade of New South Wales

The coastal coal-carrying trade of New South Wales, involved the shipping of coal to Sydney – mainly for local consumption or for bunkering steamships – from ports of the northern and southern coal fields of New South Wales, Australia. It took place in the 19th and 20th centuries. It should not be confused with the export coal trade that used larger vessels and continues today.

Coal from the northern coalfields was loaded at Hexham on the Hunter River, Carrington (The Dyke and The Basin) near Newcastle,[3] on Lake Macquarie,[4][5] and at the ocean jetty at Catherine Hill Bay. In the early years of the trade, coal was loaded at Newcastle itself on the southern bank of the Hunter River,[6] at the river port of Morpeth,[7] and at a wharf at Reid's Mistake at Swansea Heads.   Coal from the southern coal fields, at various times, was loaded at Wollongong Harbour[8] and Port Kembla[9]  and at the ocean jetty ports: Bellambi; Coalcliff; Hicks Point at Austinmer; and Sandon Point, Bulli.[10] Port Kembla was originally an ocean jetty port but two breakwaters were added later to provide shelter.[9]

 
Coal Wharf - AGL Gasworks at Mortlake on the Parramatta River with a "sixty-miler" alongside (c. 1900–1927)

At Sydney, coal wharves were located at the gasworks (Miller's Point, Mortlake, Neutral Bay, Waverton and Spring Cove at Manly).[11] Coal was unloaded at the Ball's Head Coal Loader - for steamship coal bunkering and in later years for export[12] – and at the coal depot at Blackwattle Bay. Before the Ball's Head Coal Loader opened in 1920,[12] coal was manually loaded by "coal lumpers" to steamship bunkers, from "sixty-milers" standing alongside.[13][14] Some industrial customers had their own facilities to unload coal such as CSR Pyrmont.[15]

"Sixty-milers" sometimes also carried crushed basalt construction aggregate – or "blue metal" - from the port at Kiama and ocean jetties at Bombo and Bass Point (Shellharbour) on the South Coast of New South Wales. The "blue metal" was unloaded at Blackwattle Bay in Sydney Harbour. There was also a similar type of small bulk carrier usually dedicated to carrying construction aggregate, known as the "Stone Fleet".[16][17]

The "sixty-milers"

Although the earliest "sixty-milers" were sailing vessels, the term was most typically applied to the small coal-fired steamers with reciprocating engines that were used during the late 19th and 20th centuries. In the last years of the coastal coal trade, some "sixty-milers" were diesel-powered motor vessels.[15][18]

The "sixty-milers" were relatively small vessels typically between 200 to 1500 gross tons, most were under 1000 gross tons,[19] but some were even lighter.[20] The smallest of the "sixty-milers" – ships like the Novelty[21]and Commonwealth[22] – were suitable to use the shallow Swansea Channel at the entrance to Lake Macquarie. In the earlier years some "sixty-milers" were wooden ships, most were iron or steel vessels.[20] Ships larger than the "sixty-milers" were used for interstate and export coal carrying service. Some earlier vessels were paddle-steamers but most were screw steamers. The iron and steel vessels followed the British collier design of their day, and most were British-built.[19][20]

The typical "sixty-miler" in the first half of the C20th had a high bow but lower well deck where the hatches for the two holds were located. When laden, the ships had a low freeboard and relied upon the combings, hatch covers and tarpaulins over the hatches when the sea broke over the well deck. Otherwise, there was some variation in the design of the bridge and superstructure arrangements; the bridge could be either amidships or at the rear; the engine and fuel-coal bunkers could be amidships or toward the rear.[23][24] Some "sixty-milers" in the 19th and early 20th centuries were a type known as "auxiliary steamers" that could raise triangular sails on their fore and aft masts.[25] The Myola, could unfurl sails on her two tall masts and gain a knot or so of additional speed when the wind suited.[26]

Operation and crewing

Due to the short distances between Sydney and the coal ports, and for commercial reasons, the "sixty-milers" made frequent trips of short duration, carrying coal to Sydney and in ballast for the return trip. For most "sixty-milers", ballast was provided by several water tanks located low inside the hull and running for most of the length of the vessel.[20]

The coal cargo was stored in the holds in bulk and needed to be "trimmed" to ensure that its distribution did not result in a list to one side or the other. Typically, trimming was done by the ship’s crew, although depending on the sophistication of the loading arrangements coal was loaded in such a way as to minimise the need for trimming.

The ships could be loaded relatively quickly[27] and be at sea in time to complete the trip to Sydney from Newcastle in six or so hours;[2] it would take longer in bad weather. Operation of the sixty-milers was typically six-days per week and around the clock.[1]

A crew of 10 to 16 was typical, depending upon the size of the ship. A crew of a "sixty-miler" (1919) would include a master, two mates, two engineers, a donkeyman, two firemen, four to six seamen, a cook and a steward.[20]

Losses and inquiries

Over the years of the coastal coal-carrying trade, many "sixty-milers" were wrecked, involved in collisions with other ships, or foundered. A common factor in almost all the losses of "sixty milers" was bad weather. In some losses, a factor seemed to be a haste to put to sea and get the cargo to Sydney. Another factor was the use of ocean jetties at some coal loading ports.

Hazards of ocean jetties

Coalcliff Jetty - the most exposed of the ocean jetties[28]

The waters in which the ocean jetties were located were in nautical parlance called "open roadsteads", meaning "an area near the shore where vessels anchor with relatively little protection from the sea."[29] Ocean jetties typically were located so as to have some natural protection from the south, against the common "southerly buster". While somewhat protected from the south, all the ocean jetties were exposed to the "black nor'easter", a violent storm that can arise quickly.[20] The rocky reefs that provided protection from one direction could themselves become a hazard, if the weather was from the opposite direction.

The loading operation at an ocean jetty itself could be hazardous. In the days before moveable loaders, the ship needed to be repositioned under the fixed loading chutes, either to change hatches or to reduce the amount of trimming needed. All this, while in shallow water and close to a rocky shore or beach, made working the jetty ports hazardous.

On 7 June 1887, the "sixty-miler" Waratah was half way through loading a cargo of coal at the Point Hicks Jetty at Austinmer, when struck by a "southerly buster". Accounts of what happened next vary; she either dragged her anchor and broke her mooring rope[30] or cast off quickly in an attempt to get away.[31] A mooring rope fouled the ship's propeller, leaving her drifting helplessly. She drifted onto a reef of rocks that tore a hole in her.[30] Attempts to tow her off, by the Illaroo a tug from Bulli, failed. A heavy rope was rigged from the ship to the shore and a coal basket was used to bring the crew of fourteen and their belongings - one at a time - to safety. At low tide, the ship was high and dry on the rocks 300-yards to the north of the jetty. A total loss, she was later broken-up in situ for parts.[30]

On 1 June 1903, at Catherine Hill Bay, the only ocean jetty on the northern coalfield, the "sixty-miler" Illaroo was driven ashore in a gale.[32] Fortunately, she was refloated and survived. This was one of a number of incidents at this port, including the loss of a fully-laden interstate collier, the Shamrock, earlier the same year.[33] On 16 April 1914 the "sixty-miler" Wallarah, while departing Catherine Hill Bay during a squally "east-nor-easter", was wrecked when heavy seas forced her onto the reef 70-yards to the south of the jetty.[34] No lives were lost in these three incidents.[32][33][34]

Bellambi was a busy but dangerous ocean jetty port and at least four "sixty-milers" came to grief there. The "sixty-milers" wrecked on the reef at Bellambi include Llewellyn (1882), Adinga (1896) and Saxonia (1898).[35] In 1949, the Munmorah, was the last ship to be wrecked there.[36]

Another difficulty of operations at ocean jetties was storm damage or collision damage to the jetty, which could close the port suddenly and keep it closed pending repairs.[37][38]

Loading at the ocean jetties needed to be fast to minimise the time that the "sixty-miler" stood alongside the jetty.[27] "Sixty-milers" loading at ocean jetties needed to remain under steam and ready to depart at short notice should there be a change in the prevailing weather.[39] "Sixty-milers" sometimes departed without completing all the preparations that were prudent for the safety of ship and crew, There was also no inspection of any recently loaded ship at jetty ports. These were issues that would arise during the Royal Commission of 1919.[20]

Royal Commission of 1919–1920

The six-month period from December 1918 to May 1919 saw the loss of three "sixty-milers" – the Tuggerah (owned by Wallarah Colliery) , the Undola (owned by Coalcliff Colliery), and the Myola (owned by Howard Smith Limited). There were survivors from the Tuggerah and Myola. The Undola had been lost with all hands, her fate unknown. In preceding years another three sixty-milers had been lost - the Wallarah (in 1914),[34] the Commonwealth (in 1916),[40] and the Yambacoona (in 1917).[41][20] Pressure from the Seamen's Union and others led to the establishment of a Royal Commission of Inquiry.[42]

The Royal Commission of Inquiry into the Design, Construction, Management, Equipment, Manning, Leading, Navigation and Running of the Vessels Engaged in the Coastal Coal-carrying Trade in New South Wales and into the Cause or Causes of the Loss of the Colliers Undola, Myola and Tuggerah, sat for 29-days in 1919-1920 and called 123 witnesses. The Commissioners also inspected eighteen ships - including two under 80-tons - and the loading facilities at Catherine Hill Bay, Hexham, The Dyke (Newcastle), Bulli, Bellambi, Wollongong and Port Kembla.[20]

Evidence was given at the Royal Commission that "sixty-milers" sometimes went to sea without properly trimming the coal first – resulting in a list to one side – and with the hatches off or not properly secured with tarpaulins. The Royal Commission found that both the Tuggerah and the Undola had departed with all hatch covers off to allow the coal to be trimmed.[20]

In the case of the Tuggerah, at the time that the ship foundered, covers on one hatch were in place but had yet to be secured with tarpaulins and the other hatch was open to allow the coal to be trimmed. The ship had taken a sudden lurch to port - the lee side - and a large sea came over the port rail, filling the well deck. This was followed by more seas in quick succession and the ship then turned over and sank. The Royal Commission's finding on the Tuggerah was that, "The cause of the sinking was undoubtedly water entering through open hatches."[20]

The Royal Commission could not establish the cause of the loss of the Undola. It established that the ship was in seaworthy condition and stable. The nature of the flotsam washed ashore inclined the Royal Commission to the view that the ship had struck a German mine.[20] The wrecks of the three ships were not found on the sea floor until many years later. When the wreck of the Undola was found, her hull largely was intact,[43] showing that the Undola probably had foundered and not been sunk by a mine. From what remains of her wreck, it is not possible to know if the hatch covers were in place.

The Myola

Evidence was given that the Myola, had "free water" in her ballast tanks when she had left Newcastle. The Royal Commission found that this had played a critical role by making the ship unstable by reducing her righting levers. It was unable to explain the presence of this water - the crew believed that the ballast tanks were empty - but found it possible that the filling valves were not properly screwed down.[20]

Regarding the design of the ships, the Royal Commission found that the design was suitable. Relying upon calculations of a naval architect, the Royal Commission found that both the Undola and the Myola – if properly handled – were stable. It did not have enough evidence available to find on the stability of the Tuggerah.[20]

The Royal Commission also identified that ships were only inspected prior to sailing at only three ports, Newcastle, Lake Macquarie and Wollongong, and even not always at those ports. They also identified that there was no regulation preventing a ship from leaving port pending such an inspection. The Undola had sailed from Bellambi and the Tuggerah from Bulli, both ocean jetty ports at which inspections never took place. The inspection of the Myola had not prevented her sailing from Newcastle - despite having a list when she left the wharf - nor had it identified that the ship was overloaded (due to having some free-water in her ballast tanks), which had made her unstable.[20]

The Royal commission found that the regulations against overloading - not submerging the load-line - were not well promulgated or understood, and were being interpreted by some as not submerging the load-line on just one side of the ship. It found that there had been only two prosecutions for overloading in the previous five years.[20]

The Royal Commission made recommendations concerning the ships, the practices at ports and the legislation covering the coastal coal trade.[20]

Later losses and near misses

Despite the Royal Commission, its findings and its various recommendations, losses of "sixty-milers" continued up to 1956.

In 1924, the small wooden "sixty-miler" Austral (157 tons), laden with coal, foundered off Barrenjoey Head. One life was lost. The survivors rowed for six-hours to reach the shore.[44][45]

In 1927, the Galava, en-route from Catherine Hill Bay, foundered off Terrigal due to water entering its holds through hull plates in the bow. Seven of her crew died.[46]

In 1928, the Malachite – a regular on the Sydney-Newcastle run that had been idle for about five months – was sent to Blackwattle Bay for an overhaul. While berthed alongside the coal depot wharf, the ship suddenly heeled over and sank, settling on her side.[47] She was refloated,[48] but that was the end of her sea-going days.

Two nearly identical "sixty-milers" owned by R.W.Miller, the sister ships Annie M. Miller and Birchgrove Park, both foundered.

The Annie M. Miller sank on 8 February 1929, not long after entering service. She had loaded coal at Bulli with difficulty, needing to use ballast water balancing to correct a list to port. The Annie M. Miller's captain ordered the hatches to be put on before departure but not the tarpaulins. It appears that the forward hatches were not put on. The ship left the wharf some time after 2 pm in a moderate choppy sea. Twenty minutes after departure, the list to port returned. A check showed no water in the bilges. Passing Botany Bay, the list was now so bad that two feet of water was lapping number two hatch. Despite this, Captain Pilling continued towards Sydney rather than take shelter in the bay. The list got worse until the port railing was underwater. Captain Pilling ordered the lifeboats to be prepared and the crew abandoned ship. The ship sank off Bondi. Six lost their lives.[49]

On 5 March 1929, a Court of Marine Inquiry found that the Annie M. Miller left Bulli with a decided list to port, caused by improper loading and that she was overloaded by 30 tons. The Inquiry also found that the Captain failed to place the tarpaulins on the hatches. The Inquiry stated that while it could not definitely come to a conclusion as to the direct cause of the sinking, its opinion was that the improper loading and the failure to place the tarpaulins led to the ship's loss.[49]

The Birchgrove Park – built to replace the Annie M. Miller - served from 1931 until it became the last sixty-miler to founder in 1956. Only four of the fourteen crew of the Birchgrove Park survived. They told of how Captain Laurence Lynch had refused to seek the shelter of Broken Bay during a storm but had pressed on, toward Sydney, before the vessel foundered off the northern beaches of Sydney. The survivors also told how the pumps were not started until there was too much free water in the hold, leaking in from a damaged part of the aged ship. The survivors also told of how the ship’s radio aerial was not in place, and they had to use their signal lamp to contact the South Head Lighthouse when the ship was in distress. This absence of radio contact and the search being made too far south of the ship’s last location led to a greater loss of life than otherwise might have been the case.The loss of the Birchgrove Park forms a part of the narrative of a book - "the Sixty-Miler"- written by Norma Sim, the widow of Bill Sim, one men lost with the Birchgrove Park.[50]

In 1949, the Munmorah, when arriving to load coal at the South Bulli Jetty at Bellambi, ran aground on the reef and broke up.[36]

One of the most modern of the "sixty-milers", the MV Stephen Brown – built in 1954 – nearly came to grief, when some air-vents that had been closed off and some of the deck hatches lost their covers in the stormy seas. She began to fill, with the water gradually entering her holds and developed a list. The hull sides at deck level began to go underwater, a circumstance very similar to that in the foundering of other "sixty-milers". The MV Stephen Brown made it through the heads into Sydney Harbour and Captain Don Turner initially proposed to beach her at Lady Jane Beach (Lady Bay Beach) just inside South Head. That proved unnecessary. Instead the ship stood off the beach pumping out some of the water. She was then able to discharge her cargo at the CSR wharf at Pyrmont as intended. The MV Stephen Brown was probably saved only by her great stability. Her ventilators and hatches were modified to decrease the risk of a reoccurrence.[15]

The "sixty-miler" Hexham Bank had survived her time carrying coal as a "sixty-miler" but, in June 1978, while preparing to load construction aggregate ("blue metal") at Bass Point, she caught fire.[51] All her crew were rescued.[52] Her engine room was destroyed and the ship was deemed a "constructive loss" and scrapped. Her hulk later was later sunk off Sydney Heads.[53]

Decline and end of the "sixty-milers"

The heyday of the sixty-milers was from around 1880 to the 1960s. During this time Sydney was dependent upon the ships.[54] In 1919, the Royal Commission identified twenty-nine colliers engaged in the coastal coal-carrying trade.[20]

As demand for coal in Sydney fell, the coastal coal trade of New South Wales declined. 31 December 1971 was a critical turning point; the huge Mortlake gasworks ceased making town gas from coal. Petroleum replaced coal as a feedstock for town gas-making, and oil refinery gas was purchased to supplement supply, during the interval until Sydney’s gas was converted to natural gas in December 1976.[55] After 1972, there was only one of the three loaders at Hexham operating; it closed in 1988,[56] and the coal unloader and depot at Blackwattle Bay also closed. The few remaining sixty-milers mainly carried coal for export to the reopened Ball's Head Coal Loader, until it too closed for a second and last time in 1993, marking the end of the coal trade to Sydney.[57] The last "sixty-miler" to unload at Ball's Head was the MV Camira. The last "sixty-miler" to be built, in 1980, MV Camira was sold in 1993 and converted to a livestock carrier.[18]

During the 1980s the development of Newcastle as a bulk coal export port resulted in a revival of coastal coal shipping, this time to Newcastle. Purpose built in 1986, a new self-discharging collier the Wallarah – the fourth collier so named and, at 5,717 gross tonnage,[58] far larger than any older "sixty-miler" – carried coal from Catherine Hill Bay to Newcastle, where it was unloaded for export at the Port Waratah Coal Loader at Carrington. This last echo of the coastal coal-carrying trade ended on 22 July 2002.[59]

Surviving "sixty-milers" and wrecks

MV Stephen Brown at AMC - 1987

The last of the "sixty-milers" afloat is the MV Stephen Brown, built in 1954 in Aberdeen Scotland. She ran between Hexham or Catherine Hill Bay and Sydney, and was donated in April 1983 to the National Maritime College. She is now permanently moored at Beauty Point on the Tamar River in Tasmania and used as a stationary training vessel.[15]

The "Forest Ship", the "sixty-miler" Ayrfield, with the remains of the Mortlake Bank behind it

Now better known as the "forest ship", the rusting hulk of the "sixty-miler" Ayrfield rests in shallow water in Homebush Bay, which at one time was used as a breaker's yard. The Ayrfield now hosts a luxuriant growth of mangrove trees and is a minor tourist attraction. Also in Homebush Bay is the partially disassembled hulk of another "sixty-miler" the Mortlake Bank. Since 1972, both have rested downstream of the former site of AGL's gasworks at Mortlake on the Parramatta River, to which they both carried coal for many years.[60]

The rusted boiler of the Munmorah is still visible at low tide on the reef at Bellambi.[36]

The Currajong remains, where it sank, after a collision in 1910, at the bottom of the main shipping channel of Sydney Harbour for incoming ships, just off Bradley's Head.[61] The wrecks of the "sixty-milers" Duckenfield, Woniora, Kelloe, Hilda, Undola, Tuggerah, Myola, Annie M. Miller and Birchgrove Park lie on the sea-floor near Sydney[62] and the Galava near Terrigal.[63] All continue to attract adventurous divers.

References

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  2. 1 2 "SHIPS THAT PASS". Newcastle Morning Herald and Miners' Advocate (NSW : 1876 - 1954). 1934-04-26. p. 6. Retrieved 2018-09-27.
  3. ↑ EJE Heritage (2014). Heritage and Conservation Register. https://www.portofnewcastle.com.au/Resources/Documents/Port-of-Newcastle-Heritage-and-Conservation-Register-2014-PART-I.pdf: Port of Newcastle. pp. 32–35.
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  41. ↑ "YAMBACOONA INQUIRY". Daily Commercial News and Shipping List (Sydney, NSW : 1891 - 1954). 1917-03-16. p. 2. Retrieved 2018-09-22.
  42. ↑ "LOST COLLIERS". Daily Commercial News and Shipping List (Sydney, NSW : 1891 - 1954). 1919-09-24. p. 5. Retrieved 2018-08-06.
  43. ↑ "Michael McFadyen's Scuba Diving Web Site". www.michaelmcfadyenscuba.info. Retrieved 2018-09-21.
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  45. ↑ "WRECK OF THE AUSTRAL". Barrier Miner (Broken Hill, NSW : 1888 - 1954). 1924-05-17. p. 8. Retrieved 2018-09-28.
  46. ↑ "Michael McFadyen's Scuba Diving Web Site". www.michaelmcfadyenscuba.info. Retrieved 2018-09-22.
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  48. ↑ "REFLOATED". Sydney Morning Herald (NSW : 1842 - 1954). 1928-08-15. p. 16. Retrieved 2018-09-22.
  49. 1 2 "Michael McFadyen's Scuba Diving Web Site". www.michaelmcfadyenscuba.info. Retrieved 2018-07-27.
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  52. ↑ "15 rescued from ship". Canberra Times (ACT : 1926 - 1995). 1978-06-22. p. 1. Retrieved 2018-09-30.
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  54. ↑ ""60-Milers" Rush Coal To City". Sydney Morning Herald (NSW : 1842 - 1954). 1948-01-28. p. 1. Retrieved 2018-09-30.
  55. ↑ Rosemary., Broomham, (1987). First light : 150 years of gas. Sydney, NSW: Hale & Iremonger. pp. 189, 190, 191. ISBN 978-0868062860. OCLC 18681389.
  56. ↑ "Help with defunct NSW branch at Hexham". Railpage. Retrieved 2018-09-18.
  57. ↑ Interpretative signage at the Ball's Head Coal Loader
  58. ↑ "FLOTILLA AUSTRALIA". www.flotilla-australia.com. Retrieved 2018-09-22.
  59. ↑ "Shipping Out - Wallarah's last run" (PDF). August 2002.
  60. ↑ "The Wrecks of Homebush Bay". www.afloat.com.au. Retrieved 2018-09-21.
  61. ↑ "SS Currajong". dive.hemnet.com.au. Retrieved 2018-09-22.
  62. ↑ "Michael McFadyen's Scuba Diving Web Site". www.michaelmcfadyenscuba.info. Retrieved 2018-09-20.
  63. ↑ "Michael McFadyen's Scuba Diving Web Site". www.michaelmcfadyenscuba.info. Retrieved 2018-09-23.
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