Pronunciation respelling for English

A pronunciation respelling for English is a notation used to convey the pronunciation of words in the English language, which does not have a phonemic orthography (i.e. the spelling does not reliably indicate pronunciation).

There are two basic types of pronunciation respelling:

  • "Phonemic" systems, as commonly found in American dictionaries, consistently use one symbol per English phoneme. These systems are conceptually equivalent to the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) commonly used in bilingual dictionaries and scholarly writings, but tend to use symbols based on English rather than Romance-language spelling conventions (e.g. ē for IPA /i/) and avoid non-alphabetic symbols (e.g. sh for IPA /ʃ/).
  • On the other hand, "non-phonemic"[1] or "newspaper"[2] systems, commonly used in newspapers and other non-technical writings, avoid diacritics and literally "respell" words making use of well-known English words and spelling conventions, even though the resulting system may not have a one-to-one mapping between symbols and sounds.

As an example, the pronunciation of Arkansas, transcribed /ˈɑːrkənsɔː/ in the IPA, might be respelled är′kən-sô′[3] or AR-kən-saw in a phonemic system, and arken-saw in a non-phonemic system.

Development and use

Pronunciation respelling systems for English have been developed primarily for use in dictionaries. They are used there because it is not possible to predict with certainty the sound of a written English word from its spelling or the spelling of a spoken English word from its sound. So readers looking up an unfamiliar word in a dictionary may find, on seeing the pronunciation respelling, that the word is in fact already known to them orally. By the same token, those who hear an unfamiliar spoken word may see several possible matches in a dictionary and must rely on the pronunciation respellings to find the correct match.[4]

Traditional respelling systems for English use only the 26 ordinary letters of the Latin alphabet with diacritics, and are meant to be easy for native readers to understand. English dictionaries have used various such respelling systems to convey phonemic representations of the spoken word since Samuel Johnson published his Dictionary of the English Language in 1755. Today, such systems remain in use in American dictionaries for native English speakers,[5] but they have been replaced by the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) in linguistics references and many bilingual dictionaries published outside the United States.[6]

The pronunciation which dictionaries refer to is some chosen "normal" one, thereby excluding other regional accents or dialect pronunciation. In England this standard is normally the Received Pronunciation, based upon the educated speech of southern England. The standard for American English is known as General American (GA).

Sophisticated phonetic systems have been developed, such as James Murray's scheme for the original Oxford English Dictionary, and the IPA, which replaced it in later editions and has been adopted by many British and international dictionaries. The IPA system is not a respelling system, because it uses symbols not in the English alphabet, such as ð and θ. Most current British dictionaries[7] use IPA for this purpose.

Traditional respelling systems

The following chart matches the IPA symbols used to represent the sounds of the English language with the phonetic symbols used in several dictionaries, a majority of which transcribe American English.

These works adhere (for the most part) to the one-symbol-per-sound principle. Other works not included here, such as Webster's New Twentieth Century Dictionary of the English Language (unabridged, 2nd ed.), do not, and thus have several different symbols for the same sound (partly to allow for different phonemic mergers and splits).

Consonants
IPA1 IPA2 APA NOAD AHD RHD WBO MECD DPL DPN TBD NBC MWCD COD[lower-alpha 1] POD Cham SD AB Dictcom BBC Wikipedia Examples
tʃtʃčᴄʜchc͡hchchchchchchchchchchchchchch, tchchchurch
hhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhat
hwhwhw(h)whwhwhwhwhwhw hw(h)wwhwwhwhich
dʒdʒǯjjjjjjjjjjjjjjjhjjjjudge
xxxᴋʜKHᴋ͡ʜkhHk(χ)khhhᴋʜkhkhloch (Scottish and Irish)
Buch (German)
ɡ[lower-alpha 2]gggggggggggggggggggg, ghgame
ŋŋŋɴɢngn͡gngngŋngngngŋngngngngngngng
(ng-g, nk)		ngthing
ʃʃšsʜshs͡hshshshshshshshshshshshshshshshship
θθθᴛʜtht͡hththththththththththththththththin
ðððᴛʜthth̸thththt̷hTHth:thdhthdhTHdhthdhdhthis
jjyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyyes
ʒʒžᴢʜzhz͡hzhzhzhzhzhzhzhzhzhzhzhzhzhzhzhvision
The following letters have the same values in all systems listed: b, d, f, k, l, m, n, p, r[lower-alpha 3], s, t, v, w, z.
Vowels
IPA1 IPA2 APA NOAD AHD RHD WBO MECD DPL DPN TBD NBC MWCD COD[lower-alpha 1] POD Cham SD AB Dictcom BBC Wikipedia Examples
æææaăaaaaaaaaăaaaaeaa (arr)a (arr)cat
eɪee(y)āāāayayāayāayāāayāay, aeeyeyayayday
ɛərɛrεre(ə)rârârairair--erairerārairāraireh rairairairhair
ɑːɑaäääahaaäaw, oäahä, ȧahaaäahaaahaaahfather
ɑːrɑrarärärärahraarär-ärahrära͡raaräraraa rahrarararm
ɛɛεeĕeeheeɛeeeěeeeehee (err)e (err)let
iːii(y)ēēēeeeeēēēeeēēeeēeeiyeeeeeesee
ɪərɪrιri(ə)rîrērihreeririerirēreerērihrih reereereerhere
ɪɪɪiĭiihiiiiiiǐiiiihii (irr)i (irr)pit
aɪaɪayīīīyīīyīighīīīīeye, ie, yeayahyyy, eye[lower-alpha 4]by
ɒɑaäŏoooäooahäǒoooaaoo (orr)o (orr)pot
oʊoo(w)ōōōohōōōōohōōōōoh, oeowohohohno
ɔːɔɔôôôawawôaw, oôawȯawawöawaoawawawcaught
ɔːrɔrɔrôrôrôrawr ȯrorao rawrorornorth
oro(w)rawr, ohrohrforce
ɔɪɔɪɔyoioioioyoyoioyoioiȯioioyoioioyoioyoynoise
ʊᴜᴜo͝oo͝oo͝ouo͝ooouu̇oou̇o͝oo͝oŭ[lower-alpha 5]uuhoouuuutook
ʊərᴜrᴜro͝oro͝oro͝orurooru̇rooru̇rooroorooruh roorooroortour
uːuu(w)o͞oo͞oo͞oooooo͞oūüoo:üo͞oo͞ooo[lower-alpha 5]oouwoooooosoon
aʊaᴜawouououowowouowouowau̇owowowouawouowowout
ʌʌʌəŭuuhuuʋuuhəǔuuuhahuhu (urr)u (urr)cut
ɜːrɜrərərûrûrururʉrerėrerəre͡rərûrurerurururword
əəəəəəuhəəeəuhəa, e, i, o, uəəuhahuhuhəabout
ərɚərərərəruhrərərerərerərerərərurereruhrərbutter
juːjuyuyo͞oyo͞oyo͞oyooyooyo͞oyūyüyoo:yüūyo͞oūyooy uwyooyooewview
Stress
IPA1 IPA2 APA NOAD AHD RHD WBO MECD DPL DPN TBD NBC MWCD COD[lower-alpha 1] POD Cham SD AB Dictcom BBC Wikipedia Examples
ˈaˋaáˈaa′a′Aˈaa·áa'a1aAAprimary stress
ˌaˊaàˌaa′a′
aˌa(a·)aa2aasecondary stress
aaaaaa0a[lower-alpha 6]atertiary stress

Title abbreviations

Notes

  1. 1 2 3 Older editions of the Concise Oxford Dictionary used a mix of two systems: the "phonetic scheme" shown in the table above and a system "without respelling". The latter added diacritics to conventional spellings.
  2. ↑ In IPA, it is an "opentail G" (ɡ / ), not a "looptail G" (g / ).
  3. ↑ The more precise IPA symbol ⟨ɹ⟩ is sometimes used for English /r/.
  4. ↑ Spelt eye as a syllable of its own; with a consonant, it is spelled y: iodine EYE-ə-dyne; item EYE-təm; pipe PYPE.
  5. 1 2 Older editions of The Chambers Dictionary used o͞o for ŭ and o͞o for oo.
  6. ↑ For tertiary stress, not only are the letters italicized, but they are in a different font, also. Secondary/tertiary stress is only marked when judged to be unpredictable, but is not distinguished from primary stress when it is marked.

Pronunciation without respelling

Some dictionaries indicate hyphenation and syllabic stress in the headword. A few have even used diacritics to show pronunciation "without respelling" in the headwords.

The Concise Oxford Dictionary, 1st through 4th edition, used a mix of two systems.[8] Some editions of Webster's Unabridged Dictionary have offered a method for teachers to indicate pronunciation without respelling as a supplement to the respelling scheme used in the dictionary. Pronunciation without respelling is also sometimes used in texts with lots of unusual words, such as Bibles,[9][10][11] when it is desirable to show the received pronunciation. These will often be more exhaustive than dictionary respelling keys because all possible digraphs or readings need to have a unique spelling.

Concise Oxford Dictionary's system without respelling
COD variantIPA
ph/f/
kn (initial)/n/
wr (initial)/r/
g, dg/dʒ/ (before e, i, y)
/ɡ/ otherwise
(hard and soft g)
c/s/ (before e, i, y)
/k/ otherwise
(hard and soft c)
ai, ay/eɪ/
air/ɛər/
ae, ea, ee, ie/iː/
ė, ie (final), ey/ɪ/
ear, eer, ier/ɪər/
aw/ɔː/
oy/ɔɪ/
ou/aʊ/
i͡r, u͡r/ɜr/
eu, ew/juː/
Henry Adeney Redpath's table of signs in the King James Bible[10][11][12]
SymbolOriginal glossApproximate IPA equivalent*
-syllable boundary (always added;
original hyphens become –)		/./
-́syllable boundary after stress*/ˈ/ or /ˌ/ before syll.
äah, arm, father/ɑː/
ăabet, hat, dilemma/æ, ə‡/
ātame/eɪ/
âfare/ɛə†/
ạcall/ɔː/
ĕmet, her, second/ɛ, ɜ†, ə‡/
ēmete/iː/
ëa in tame/eɪ/
īfine/aɪ/
ĭhim, fir, plentiful/ɪ, ɜ†, i‡, ə‡/
îmachine/iː/
ịpeculiar/j/
ōalone/oʊ/
ŏon, protect/ɒ, ə‡/
ônor/ɔː/
o̱son/ʌ, ə‡/
ūtune/juː/
ûrude/uː/
ŭus/ʌ, ə‡/
u̇turner/ɜ†/
ȳlyre/aɪ/
y̆typical, fully/ɪ, i‡/
a͞aa of am/æ/
a͡aa of fare/ɛə/
ǣ, a͞emediæval/iː/
a͡iaisle/aɪ/
a͟ihail/eɪ/
a͞oo of alone/oʊ/
a͡umaul/ɔː/
e͡eheed/iː/
e͡ii of fine/aɪ/
e͡uneuter/juː/
e͡wlewd/juː/
o͡ioil/ɔɪ/
c̣celestial/s/
c͟hcharacter/k/
c͞idelicious/ʃ/
ġgiant/dʒ/
ṡhis/z/
s͞iadhesion/ʒ/
T͞hThomas/t/
t͞iattraction/ʃ/

* IPA symbols interpreted by Wikipedia.
† This reading or symbol is only obtained or used before "r".
‡ This reading is only obtained in unstressed syllables.

International Phonetic Alphabet

The International Phonetic Alphabet is a standardized method of phonetic transcription developed by a group of English and French language teachers in 1888. In the beginning, only specialized pronunciation dictionaries for linguists used it, for example, the English Pronouncing Dictionary edited by Daniel Jones (EPD, 1917). The IPA was used by English teachers as well, and started to appear in popular dictionaries for learners of English as a foreign language, such as the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary (1948), and Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (1978).

IPA is very flexible, allowing for a wide variety of transcriptions between broad phonemic transcriptions which describe the significant units of meaning in language, and phonetic transcriptions which may indicate every nuance of sound in detail.

The IPA transcription conventions used in the first twelve editions of the EPD was relatively simple, using a quantitative system indicating vowel length using a colon, and requiring the reader to infer other vowel qualities. Many phoneticians preferred a qualitative system, which used different symbols to indicate vowel timbre and colour. A.C. Gimson introduced a quantitative-qualitative IPA notation system when he took over editorship of the EPD (13th edition, 1967); and by the 1990s, the Gimson system had become a de facto standard for phonetic notation of British Received Pronunciation (RP).

Short and long vowels in various IPA schemes for RP
word quant. qual. Gimson
ridridrɪdrɪd
reedriːdridriːd
codkɔdkɒdkɒd
cordkɔːdkɔdkɔːd

The first native (not learner's) English dictionary using IPA may have been the Collins English Dictionary (1979), and others followed suit. The Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition (OED2, 1989) used IPA, transcribed letter-for-letter from entries in the first edition, which had been noted in a scheme by the original editor, James Murray.

While IPA has not been adopted by popular dictionaries in the United States, there is a demand for learner's dictionaries which provide both British and American English pronunciation. Some dictionaries, such as the Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary and the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English provide a separate transcription for each.

British and American English dialects have a similar set of phonemes, but some are pronounced differently; in technical parlance, they consist of different phones. Although developed for RP, the Gimson system being phonemic, it is not far from much of General American pronunciation as well. A number of recent dictionaries, such as the Collins COBUILD Advanced Learner's English Dictionary, add a few non-phonemic symbols /ʳ i u ᵊl ᵊn/ to represent both RP and General American pronunciation in a single IPA transcription.

Adaptations of the Gimson system for American English
/ɒ/ Pronounced [ɑː] in General American.
/e/ In American English falls between [e] and [æ] (sometimes transcribed /ɛ/)
/əu/ This traditional transcription is probably more accurately replaced by /ou/ in American English.
/r/ Regular r is always pronounced
/ʳ/ Superscript r is only pronounced in rhotic dialects, such as General American, or when followed by a vowel (for example adding a suffix to change dear into dearest)
/i/ Medium i can be pronounced [ɪ] or [iː], depending on the dialect
/ɔː/ Many Americans pronounce /ɔː/ the same as /ɒ/ ([ɑː])
/ᵊl/ Syllabic l, sometimes transcribed /l/ or /əl/
/ᵊn/ Syllabic n, sometimes transcribed /n/ or /ən/

Clive Upton updated the Gimson scheme, changing the symbols used for five vowels. He served as pronunciation consultant for the influential Concise Oxford English Dictionary, which adopted this scheme in its ninth edition (1995). Upton's reform is controversial: it reflects changing pronunciation, but critics say it represents a narrower regional accent, and abandons parallelism with American and Australian English. In addition, the phonetician John C Wells said that he could not understand why Upton had altered the presentation of price to prʌɪs.[13]

Upton outlined his reasons for the transcription in a chapter of A Handbook of Varieties of English. He said that the PRICE-vowel represented how the starting point could be anything from centralised front to centralised back.[14] The change in the NURSE vowel was intended as a simplification as well as a reflection that nɜːs was not the only possible realisation in RP.[15] The other alterations were intended to reflect changes that have occurred over time.

Upton's reform
word Gimson Upton
betbetbɛt
batbætbat
nursenɜːsnəːs
squareskweəskwɛː
pricepraɪsprʌɪs

The in-progress 3rd edition of the Oxford English Dictionary uses Upton's scheme for representing British pronunciations. For American pronunciations it uses an IPA-based scheme devised by Prof. William Kretzschmar of the University of Georgia.

Comparison

Comparison of the IPA variants for English
Lexical setsRPGA
Jones
(1909, 1917)[16][17]		 Gimson
(1962, 1967)[18][19]		 Upton
(1995)[20]		 Kenyon&Knott
(1944)[21]		 Roach et al.
(1997)[22]
FLEECEiːiːiːiiː
KITiɪɪɪɪ
DRESSeeɛɛe
TRAPææaææ
STARTɑːɑːɑːɑr~ɑː[lower-roman 1]ɑːr
PALMɑːɑːɑːɑɑː
LOTɔɒɒɑ~ɒ[lower-roman 1]ɑː
THOUGHTɔːɔːɔːɔɔː
NORTHɔːɔːɔːɔr~ɔə[lower-roman 1]ɔːr
FOOTuʊʊᴜʊ
GOOSEuːuːuːuuː
STRUTʌʌʌʌʌ
NURSEəːɜːəːɝ~ɜ[lower-roman 1]ɝː
LETTERəəəɚ~ə[lower-roman 1]ɚ
COMMAəəəəə
FACEeieɪeɪeeɪ
GOATouəʊəʊooʊ
PRICEaiaɪʌɪaɪaɪ
MOUTHau~ɑu[lower-roman 2]aʊaʊaᴜaʊ
CHOICEɔiɔɪɔɪɔɪɔɪ
NEARiəɪəɪəɪr~ɪə[lower-roman 1]ɪr
SQUAREɛəeəɛːɛr~ɛə[lower-roman 1]er
CUREuəʊəʊəᴜr~ᴜə[lower-roman 1]ʊr
Notes
  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Kenyon & Knott provided alternative variants for Eastern and Southern pronunciation: /ɑː ɒ ɔə ɜ ə ɪə ɛə ᴜə/ for general /ɑr ɑ ɔr ɝ ɚ ɪr ɛr ᴜr/, respectively.[21]
  2. ↑ In his earlier works, Jones used /ɑu/ for this diphthong.[16]

Dictionaries for English-language learners

For many English language learners, particularly learners without easy Internet access, dictionary pronunciation respelling are the only source of pronunciation information for most new words. Which respelling systems are best for such learners has been a matter of debate.

In countries where the local languages are written in non-Latin, phonemic orthographies, various other respelling systems have been used. In India, for example, many English bilingual dictionaries provide pronunciation respellings in the local orthography. This is the case for several Indian languages, including Hindi, Urdu, Malayalam, and Tamil. To reduce the potential distortions of bilingual phonemic transcription, some dictionaries add English letters to the local-script respellings to represent sounds not specified in the local script. For example, in English-Tamil dictionaries, the sounds /b/ and /z/ need to be specified, as in this respelling of busy: "bபிzஸி".[23]

Because these respellings primarily use symbols already known to anyone with minimal literacy in the local language, they are more practical to use in such contexts than the IPA or the Latin respelling systems with diacritics. Another advantage of local-script respellings for English learners is that they retain the "flavour" of local English speech, allowing learners to make connections between their spoken and written English experiences. However, these systems also have limitations. One limitation is that they do not illuminate the English writing system. Like the IPA, they represent phonemes differently from the ways in which the phonemes are normally spelled. So these notations do not guide readers to infer the regularities of English spelling. Also, the practicality of these systems for learning English locally may be offset by difficulties in communication that could arise in the context of other pronunciation norms such as GA or RP.

Children's dictionaries

Most beginner dictionaries are picture dictionaries, or word books. For preliterate native speakers of a language, the pictures in these dictionaries both define the entry words and are the "keys" to their pronunciation. Respellings for English begin to appear in dictionaries for novice readers. Generally, US-based dictionaries contain pronunciation information for all headwords, while UK-based dictionaries provide pronunciation information only for unusual (e.g., ache) or ambiguously spelled (e.g., bow) words.[24]

As the normal age of literacy acquisition varies among languages, so do the age-range designations of children's books. Generally, age ranges for young children's books in English lag behind those of languages with phonemic orthographies by about a year. This corresponds to the slow pace of literacy acquisition among English speakers as compared to speakers of languages with phonemic orthographies, such as Italian.[25] Italian children are expected to learn to read within the first year of elementary school, whereas English-speaking children are expected to read by the end of third grade. Pronunciation respellings begin to appear in dictionaries for children in third grade and up.

There seems to be very little research on which respelling systems are most useful for children, apart from two small studies done in the 1980s and 1990s. Both studies were limited to traditional respelling systems without diacritics (setting aside both the IPA and the Webster-based systems used in American dictionaries). Both studies found that in such systems, word respellings may be cumbersome and ambiguous, as in this respelling of psychology: "suy-kol-uh-jee".

The authors of the two studies proposed alternative systems, though there were no follow-up studies. Yule's "cut system" leaves out extra letters, adds specific spellings for sounds with variable spellings, and adds accents to show long vowels, as in this respelling of occasion: o-cà-zhon.[26] Fraser advocated a "non-phonemic" approach using a small set of common spelling patterns in which words would be respelled chunk by chunk, rather than phoneme by phoneme, as in this respelling of persiflage: per-sif-large.[27] According to both authors, the reduced vowel (schwa) need not be shown in a respelling so long as syllabification and syllable stress are shown.

The following overlapping issues concerning pronunciation respelling in children's dictionaries were directly raised by Yule and Fraser: the level of difficulty, the type of notation, the degree of divergence from regular spelling, and pronunciation norms. Yule also raised the question of the types of impact respelling systems could have on children's literacy acquisition. These issues could be usefully addressed in studies that include American respelling systems as well as the IPA.

An issue that has arisen since the Yule and Fraser studies concerns the utility of pronunciation respellings given the availability of audio pronunciations in online dictionaries. Currently the advantage of written respellings is that they may be read phoneme by phoneme, in parallel to the way novice readers are taught to "stretch out" words to hear all the sounds they contain, while the audio pronunciations are given only as whole words spoken in real time. When audio pronunciations are made flexible, it will become possible to study and compare the utility of different combinations of pronunciation features in the online children's dictionaries.

Other uses

Outside of dictionaries, press agencies in English, such as the Voice of America, periodically release lists of respelled given names of internationally relevant people, in order to help news TV and radio announcers and spokespersons to pronounce them as closely as possible to their original languages.

See also

References

  1. ↑ Fraser 1997, p. 182
  2. ↑ Landau 2001, p. 121
  3. ↑ "Arkansas". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (5th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. 2014.
  4. ↑ Merriam-Webster Online n.d.
  5. ↑ Landau 2001, p. 118
  6. ↑ Landau 2001, pp. 119–21
  7. ↑ Such as The Oxford BBC Guide to Pronunciation Mind your language Archived 2008-07-09 at the Wayback Machine., by Dot Wordsworth, in The Spectator, November 7, 2007.
  8. ↑ Fowler, H. W.; Fowler, F. G., eds. (1911). The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English (1st ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press.
  9. ↑ The self-pronouncing New Testament of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ. Philadelphia: A. J. Holman & Co. 1895.
  10. 1 2 The Oxford self-pronouncing Bible; the Holy Bible containing the Old and New Testaments. New York & London: Oxford University Press. 1897.
  11. 1 2 The Oxford self-pronouncing Testament; the New Testament... New York & London: Oxford University Press. 1900.
  12. ↑ The Holy Bible: Authorized King James Version. Collins' Clear-Type Press. 1959.
  13. ↑ http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/wells/ipa-english.htm
  14. ↑ Upton 2004, p. 225
  15. ↑ Upton 2004, p. 224
  16. 1 2 Jones, Daniel (1909). The Pronunciation of English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. XIV-XV.
  17. ↑ Jones, Daniel (1917). An English Pronouncing Dictionary. J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd. p. XXV.
  18. ↑ Gimson, A. C. (1962). An introduction to the pronunciation of English (1 ed.).
  19. ↑ Crystal, David (1995). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English language. p. 237.
  20. ↑ Concise Oxford English Dictionary (10 ed.). Oxford University Press. 1995.
  21. 1 2 Kenyon, John S.; Knott, Thomas A. (1944). A Pronouncing Dictionary of American English. Springfield, MA: G.& C. Merriam Co.
  22. ↑ Jones, Daniel (1997). Roach, Peter; Hartman, James; Setter, Jane, eds. English Pronouncing Dictionary. Cambridge University press.
  23. ↑ Students' Deluxe Dictionary n.d.
  24. ↑ Oxford Junior Illustrated Dictionary
  25. ↑ Seymour 2003
  26. ↑ Yule 1991
  27. ↑ Fraser 1996

Sources

  • Gaskins, Irene; et al. (1997). "Procedures for Word Learning: Making Discoveries About Words". The Reading Teacher. 50 (4): 312–327.
  • Emsley, Bert (February 1940). "Progress in Pronouncing Dictionaries". American Speech. 15 (1): 55–59. doi:10.2307/452729. JSTOR 452729.
  • Fraser, Helen (1996). "Guy-dance with Pro-nun-see-ay-shon". English Today 47. 12 (3): 29–37.
  • Fraser, Helen (1997). "Dictionary Pronunciation Guides for English". International Journal of Lexicography. 10 (3): 181–208. doi:10.1093/ijl/10.3.181.
  • Students' Deluxe Dictionary (New ed.). Coimbatore: Deluxe Publishers. n.d.
  • Landau, Sidney I. (2001). Dictionaries: The Art and Craft of Lexicography (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-78040-3.
  • Oxford Junior Illustrated Dictionary. Oxford University Press. 2011.
  • Seymour, P.H.K.; et al. (2003). "Foundation Literacy Acquisition in European Orthographies". British Journal of Psychology. 94 (2): 143–147. doi:10.1348/000712603321661859.
  • Wells, John (2001). "IPA transcription systems for English", at University College London Department of Phonetics and Linguistics site. Retrieved 2006-08-16.
  • Yule, Valerie (1991). "Pilot Experiments in Cutting Surplus Letters".
  • Windsor Lewis, Jack (December 2003). "IPA vowel symbols for British English in dictionaries". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 33 (2). doi:10.1017/S0025100303001257. Retrieved 2007-11-29.
  • Upton, Clive (2004). "Received Pronunciation". In Schneider, Edgar W. A Handbook of Varieties of English. 1. Phonology. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 217–230. ISBN 978-3-11-017532-5.
  • Antimoon.com. "Introduction to phonetic transcription", at Antimoon.com. Retrieved 2006-08-16.
  • Oxford English Dictionary. "Pronunciation", from the Preface to the Third Edition. Retrieved 2006-09-10.
  • Oxford English Dictionary. "Key for Second Edition Entries", from the OED website. Retrieved 2014-11-21.
  • Oxford English Dictionary. "Key to New Edition Entries", from the OED website. Retrieved 2014-11-21.
  • Merriam-Webster Online, n.d. "Pronunciation Overview", Retrieved 2011-07-23.
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