Misogyny in sports

Misogyny in sports refers to different discourses, actions and ideologies present in various sporting environments that add, reinforce, or normalize the objectification, degrading, shaming, or absence of women. It can range from limiting women's participation to informal reinforcement of the men's status, by comparing it to that of a woman. Because sports are so popular in today's society, they can be seen as a microcosm for the way people view their culture.

Gender gap

Coverage in media

Misogyny refers to hatred or prejudice towards women. It is manifested in several ways, such as hostility, sex discrimination, and social exclusion. Despite the popularity of sports in many societies in the world, misogyny is still prevalent in sports. In recent times, media coverage has increased the popularity of sports, but women's sports still suffers. It would be expected that both men's and women's sports are equally promoted on the media, such as television, radio and print media. Unfortunately, the coverage of women sports remains lower and shows no signs improvement; hence misogyny in media coverage of women's sports is confirmed.

There is little improvement in the coverage of women's sports by the media. The Women's Sports and Fitness Foundation reports that only 7% percent of media coverage is devoted to women's sport. This is discouraging based on findings that over 60% of sports fans would like to watch women's sport on television. Discouragingly, the media coverage of these sports is dominated by terms, such as older, pregnant, married and unmarried thus shifting the attention from sports. In the same regard, Kelly (1) reports that men are three times likely to be mentioned in sports media than women, in a language that focuses on the sporting aspect and not the aesthetic aspects.

The efforts to popularize women sports through media coverage dependents on the online presence of broadcasters on social media platforms, such as Facebook and Twitter. However, Hull (4) reports that little efforts are being undertaken in respect to the same. A sampling of an estimated twenty thousand tweets involving two hundred broadcasters of local sports in the United States of America showed that only 5% of the tweets were related to women's sports (Hull 5). Besides, the study revealed worrying findings that female sports broadcasters tweeted more on men's sports than women's. Worst of all, the sports broadcasters in larger cities were found to be unlikely to report on women's sports.

Despite the increasing viewership of women's sports, there remains a larger disparity in the sports coverage for men's and women's sports. Findings of a study by the Birmingham University indicates the top six newspaper in Britain had fewer stories on women sports than the previous year when Olympics was taking place. Stories concerning women's sports were outnumbered by the stories on men's sport by twenty times. These newspapers were: The mirror, sun, Times, Mail, Express, Mirror, and Telegraph. The same study explains that a year after the 2012 Olympics, 97% of the sports coverage was on men's sports (Martinson 1). Furthermore, the study went ahead to link this scenario to the shortage of female sports journalists.

Media is influenced by many aspects of society. Equally, sporting activities attracts the attention of many people in the society. Therefore, the perception of the society towards equality and respect to women can be improved through increased coverage of women's sports on the media. The misogyny in the society can be said to be caused by the reluctance of media people to give adequate coverage to women's sports. We cannot be aiming to achieve parity in sports when the media devotes less than 5% of media coverage on women's sports. At the same time, the coverage of the women's sport should focus on sports and not on aesthetics and sexuality. Change is urgently needed to reverse this. This change is welcome because it will influence the societies' perception towards women. Perhaps, more women should be encouraged to develop careers in sports journalism for this to be realized. Despite the existing situation, it is good to remain hopeful that women's sport will be given increased coverage because many fans are would love to see these sports on their screens.

Women's sports have been underrepresented in comparison to men in their respective sports. In 2009, SportsCenter dedicated only 1.4% of its airtime to women sports, down from 2.2% in 1999.[1] In an article published in 2013 by Science Daily, they pointed out that over 2 years, only 3.6% of articles from five national Sunday papers discussed women sports, compared to 93.8% of articles devoted to men's sports.[2]

Research has shown that children start to learn stereotypical attitudes towards gender-appropriate actions at a very early age, and traditional images in print photographs and advertising reinforce typical gender roles. Media plays a powerful role in shaping children's perception, more so than text as children develop a sense of visual literacy earlier than written literacy. A 1990 study concluded that two thirds of photos in reading primers were of men, often shown leading more action-packed, and significant lives than the women depicted in the photographs. Several studies have shown that women are often framed as sexual objects and lesser competitors, as well as displaying more emotion than men, in many sports photographs. Many media studies suggest that they continue to "reinforce the hegemonic image that sport is a right of passage for men." Studies suggest that in Sports Illustrated, which has been labeled the most influential sports publication, men are the preeminent figures featured in photographs and feature articles within the magazine. When women are underrepresented, there is an underlying message being conveyed that they don't belong, don't exist, or have not accomplished anything.[3]

In the UK, media talks of re-signing convicted rapist Ched Evans to Sheffield United Football Club.[4] Additionally, misogynistic leaflets were distributed by a rugby team at one of the country’s most prestigious universities, the London School of Economics.[5] These are only a few of the most recent examples. Problems with gender persist.[6]

Some publicity given to the NFL scandals in the US[7] and the Oscar Pistorius trial in South Africa[8] some argue show the endurance of patriarchal power structures.[9] They might be signs of deeply embedded misogyny within sports internationally.[10]

Pay gap

Serena Williams, the highest paid woman in sports in 2017

The pay gap in sports seems to arise depending on the gender and the type of sport. Based on athletics data in 2009, female athletes earned 23.4 percent less than male athletes.[1] In 2014, based on Arsenal's performance data, Arsenal's women soccer team earned less than the men's team. The women's team earned five thousand dollars as opposed to the men's whose pay scale was $1.8 million.[11] This gap does not only apply to athletes, but also to members of the teams coaching staff.[12]

Many studies have been conducted to discover the emergence of the pay gap in sports. An employment strategy conducted in European Union member states shows disparity in pay between male and females.[13] The investigation was how players and coaches are paid determined by gender and the sport they participate in. The results showed that the coaches of the male team had a much greater salary than the coaches of the women's team. In 2001, the average salary for coaches of woman's teams in Division 1 was $38,191, while coaches of men's teams earned an average of $61,534.[14] At Division 1 I-FBS Schools in the USA, the median head coaches' salaries were $2,257,600 higher for men in comparison to their women counterparts.[15] A study conducted by Michigan State University found that the salaries for both men and women Division 1 coaches was determined by both gender and type of sport. It showed that coaching males has a more positive impact on a coaches salary than coaching females did, and because of this, both athletic directors and men's coaches have a high interest in maintaining and reinforcing the status quo, which indicates that the lowest paying coaching jobs are held by women.[16]

On the other hand, tennis remains as the one sport that has the most comparable and fair pay between men and women. Tennis receives the most media coverage than any other women’s sport, and through social media, is continuing to experience growth in popularity. According to Forbes, eight of the top ten best paid women athletes are tennis players.[17] A 2009 research conducted by three professors from Brigham Young University found that male and female tennis players have the same employers at 21 events, including the four grand-slam tournaments (Australian Open, French Open, Wimbledon, US Open).[18] While, in most other sports, women’s associations have different sponsorships and media coverage.

The 2007 Wimbledon Championships was the first tournament that offered equal prize money for male and female athletes.[19] However, while this may be the case during televised events and the grand slams, women are still not receiving as much in middle- and low- tier events; the most popular rationalization being that men play longer.[18] Although it is true that men players are required to play a best-of-5 set and that women players are only required to play best-of-3-sets, other than during the grand slams, this does not apply to any other tournaments. Another argument for unequal pay is that men generate more revenue through higher television ratings and attendance. However, most tournament tickets grant spectators access to both men’s and women’s matches on that day. So, aside from counting the numbers of viewers per match, it is difficult to determine revenues in tournaments where both sexes play. Finally, there is also evidence that ratings are mostly equal, with some cases indicating women being higher than men.[18]

There are some who believe that the problem in trying to explain the gender pay gap, is that they are trying to justify why it exists instead of addressing the problem of why it exists in the first place. Karen Farquharson, who is a professor at Australia's Swinburne University of Technology, says the problem is a societal thing that results from not valuing women in the society. Karen admits that women are not strong as men but it does not mean they are not entertaining and competitive. The main reason why they remain less in sports is that the society is patriarchal and male-dominated especially when it comes to sports. This means that sports are like a vicious circle and broadcasters just take advantage of it to only broadcast male games continuously leaving out women thinking they are not interested.[20]

Additionally, female athletes are still not receiving as much non-sexist and positive attention then male athletes. Women sometimes compete under certain conditions that give them less respect than their male peers. Women athletes still face problems of sexual harassment, and over-training associated with eating disorders and body image. The U.S. women’s soccer team, which is ranked much higher than the men’s, enjoy much less recognition, popularity, and pay.[21] Such allegations and improper judgment on women have led some players to take a step and sue their federation for discrimination. On 30 March 2016, five top U.S women players, Hope Solo, Carli Lloyd, Megan Rapinoe, Alex Morgan and Becky Sauerbrunn, filed a lawsuit against the Soccer Federation to demand equal employment opportunity.[22] The complaint alleges that women on the national soccer team make about 40% of what their male counterparts do.[23] Female athletes across all sports may win more trophies and medals, but more often than not, this does not translate to equal payment. Toughness of competition, more lenient rules, and difference in skill levels are just a couple excuses made to disregard this very real social issue.

Misogyny

Traditionally, the views of women's involvement in sports has led many to believe that they are absent from inclusion altogether. For much of history, most of the discussion around women and sports was centered around health risks for upper-class, white women, while excluding those of non-white or homosexual orientation.[24] As of 2013, female athletes receive an average of 63,000 fewer opportunities than men at NCAA institutions.[25]

Women's participation in various sports, such as boxing or rugby union, has grown in recent years. However, there is still an undertone that they don't belong, by calling into question their sexuality or femininity.[24] A 1993 study conducted by Michael Messner found that women were described using words like "girls" and "young women", while men were described using words like "young man" and "men" but never as "boys." The same study found also found instances of women's successes and failures being described as "her little jump hook", adding to the notion that women are less talented or skilled than their male counterparts.[26]

Recent examples of domestic violence against women in various sports have highlighted the deeply rooted misogyny present in most sports. Similarly, the masculinity that is involved in many sporting activities allow men to assume that they have "the right to vent their anger on the bodies of women and to discriminate against women in a number of different ways, including sexualizing and marginalizing them" says Kath Woodward, Professor of Sociology at the Open University.[27]

Many of the messages that are delivered to male sports participants are about being tougher than your opponent, and the toughest one wins. The worst thing to be called or compared to in sports is a woman, and the quickest way to cut someone down. Coaches and pop culture constantly deliver messages that emphasize hyper-masculinity. However, all too often the societal frame of being a man is one that undermines women. These behaviors are seen as normal in the male-dominated sports world.[28][29][30]

The sexism experienced by women in sports also tends to be more overt, and less subtle, than sexism in other work and organizational settings. Sexist remarks made in many workplaces have been discouraged by displays of social disapproval and the potential threat of organizational reprimand. This has forced misogynistic views to be more subtle in these settings, taking the form of microaggressions or remarks in the form of benevolent sexism. In the sports industry, in comparison, overt sexist remarks are still commonplace and tend to result in less public backlash than similar statements given in other settings.[31] Female athletes do not receive more attention or opportunities as compared to their male counterparts. Misogyny in sports make many people perceive women as weaklings in sporting activities. Recently, the number of females in sports has increased but not in the same percentage with that of males. For example, only fewer women participate in games such as rugby and boxing. In 2015, Don McPherson, a former National Football League (NFL) quarterback, argued that in sports boys are raised not only to be men but also not to be women (California Institute of Integral Studies). In other words, he meant that coaches ensure that young males gain enough strength to face their opponents and discourage these players to fear, which is a character associated with femininity. In sporting activities, to be masculine means to possess skills, energy, and toughness to become the victor in many tournaments. Misogyny in sports is a significant factor that contributes to shaming, objectifying, and degrading women regardless of their performance on the playing field.

Title IX

Title IX Harassment and Assault Awareness Ribbon

Girls and women have been discriminated and denied sports opportunities for quite a long time. For years, women and girls were comfortable with the stereotypes that were attached with the concept of women in sports but with time, different organizations and feminists have come up with strategies to uplift the participation rates of women and girls in sports.[32]

Title IX for example is a legislation that was passed in 1972 to that provided different provisions that protected the rights of equality in sports for women and girls. It is a law that requires all educational programs receiving federal funding to provide equity for both boys and girls. Over the years, the law has been subject to over 20 proposed amendments, reviews, and Supreme Court cases. The law has acted as a way of motivating women and girls to participate more in sports.[33]

The participation of girls and women in sports has brought about numerous immediate and long-term benefits that have a lasting impact on both the female gender and the society at large.[34] Some of the different provisions of the ‘Title IX’ include equality in the different sports fields for both sexes. Essentially, this provision is aimed at placing women at an advantage in athletics and sports. However, it is important that such provisions do not necessarily imply that equal amounts are spent on sports activities and matters for both sexes and athletic opportunities for boys and men to be reduced but simply means that both women and girls should not be discouraged and denied any sports opportunities. But there are still thousands of schools across the county are not in compliance with Title IX.[35] The law covers all educational activities that receive public funding, so even though sports receive little public funding, they are still subject to Title IX, and are the most well-known application of the law. Opponents of the law say that has led to a break down of men's sports, pointing to the number of schools and institutions that have dropped sports since the enactment of Title IX, such as wrestling and cross-country.[36][37]

Prior to the law, only 295,000 girls participated in high school sports and they received only 2% of the athletic budget. In 2016-2017, that number had risen to 3.4 million girls playing high school sports across the country.[38][39]

Various studies have found that those who participate in high school athletics have higher wages, educational attainment, and educational aspirations later on in life. The rise in opportunities to participate in sports has led to a similar rise in labor force participation, which leads to more women with positive earnings.[40]

Since the enactment of Title IX, women have made strides in college athletics for years. Other factors such as body shaping and fan culture are some of the motivation strategies that concerned individuals in the society are taking up to increase women and girl’s participation in sports.[34] However, it should be noted that more enforcement strategies need to be put in place to increase women and girl participation in sports since women discrimination in sports has not been completely eradicated since in some cases, women and girl’s participation in sports is not approved.[41]

Women's opportunities and their leadership roles

Although Title IX encouraged more women to participate in sports at an NCAA level, the number of women in leadership roles drastically decreased. Women in senior decision making roles devolved to a number of 18% and women in athletic director positions held only 17% in the year 2000.[42] Although major strides have been taken by people in all realms of the sports industry to create more opportunities for women, women are still underrepresented in the industry as a whole.[43] According to the NCAA, only 8.3% of Division I athletics directors are women.[44] Only 21% of college women's athletic programs are headed by women, and women fill only 33% of all administrative jobs in women's programs. In high school, less than 20% of athletic directors are women, and less than 40% of directors of physical education are women.[45] An American Society of New Editors (ASNE) newsroom census report in 1991 showed 63.1% of newsroom were men and 36.9% were women. In 2012, the percentages had not changed. By 2013, the statistics were slightly worse, showing 63.7% were men and 36.3% were women.[46] Some issues still remaining in terms of gender inequality in sport include the pay gap discrepancies, lack of opportunities for women in a male dominant industry, and lack of media coverage for women athletes. While there are women who enter top management positions in this industry, men typically receive a greater number of opportunities. Hegemony is described as a state of a “ruling class” referring to men at the forefront of society. This concept reaffirms the status quo that men demand authority in a society from imposition, manipulation, and even consent from certain groups. Due to this restricting concept, women find it much harder to advance in leadership roles simply due to what has already been set in motion by previous generations and previous cultures.

A study conducted by Alice Eagly and Steven Karau, two professors of psychology and management, explored the social role theory and role congruity theory in relation to how women and men assume different career and social roles based on societal expectations. Through the role congruity theory, Eagly and Karau explained similarities between gender roles and leadership roles, which suggested prejudice toward female leader and potential leaders take two forms. "The first form showed a less favorable evaluation of women's potential for leadership because leadership ability is more stereotypical of men than women. The second form showed a less favorable evaluation of the actual leadership behavior of women than men because such behavior is perceived less desirable in women than men."[47] This research established view points and supportive information on why there are less women in leadership roles than men throughout the sport industry.

The issues women face in sports off the field are not only unique to the United States, and as the spectrum broadens, one can see that the disparity of women in sports governance positions decreases. Some have suggested to require quotas for women to participate in governance of sports programs, but even this solution is flawed. Suggesting that a company makes requirements in their recruitment to seek out women would only be done to achieve a certain number, and not because they actually want to do so in the first place. Instead, these organizations should focus on achieving targets that come close to a standard of around 40% of women representation. This number has been positively associated with correct board governance and effectiveness.[48]

Sexual harassment in the workplace

In her book, "Sexual Harassment in the Workplace", Mary Boland argues that sexual harassment is a personal attack on a woman's mind and body, that installs fear and violates her right to bodily integrity education, and freedom of movement.[49] According to the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) "working women face higher risks than men from job-related stress, and one of the most noxious stressors sexual harassment."[49] In reference to the toll that it takes on women, Boland states "victims suffer physical, mental, emotional, and financial losses that can be devastating."[49] According to a study conducted by the Journal of Sport Management, over 50% of 112 respondents reported they encountered some form of sexual harassment over the past 12 months prior to the study.[50] As reported by the Institute for Diversity and Ethics in Sport at the University of Central Florida in 2012, 90% of sports editors and 88% of sports reporters are men.[51] The disproportion between men and women in this position may discourage female sport media print professionals from reporting such incidents of sexual harassment according to an article published by Christina Coleburn.[51]

Regardless of the field in which women work, sexual harassment in the workplace is alive and well and in the sports industry, it is common. Women in powerful or governance position are often viewed as too assertive, thus receiving harassment for challenging the preconceived notion of a hierarchy. These women in power also report more instances of sexual harassment in the workplace, because of their threat to the status quo. Studies also suggest that a women in a supervisor position will report more instances of sexual harassment due to their intelligence, knowledge, and experience in a workplace environment where they hold power. Targets of sexual harassment are more likely to be female because they may have masculine tendencies, and men feel the need to reassure their “masculine dominance”.[52] The lack of awareness of sexual harassment in the sports industry is extremely concerning for progressive movements towards equality. A study done in 2011 in Quebec called “Disclosure of Sexual Abuse in Sport Organizations: A Case Study” points to the many problems in sports organizations. Most instances point to women rarely, if ever, reporting assault or harassment in the sports business. Most coaches, athletes, and administrators were not even aware of existing protocols of sexual harassment. When questioned about this concerning issue, the administrators resorted back to their lawyers; assuming that the issue was for too complicated to tackle.[53]

According to associate director of research at Pew Research Center, Katie Simmons, "a woman's main role has always been to be a wife, and then a mother. Women have been stereotyped for years as being the less intellectual and weaker sex."[54] Women are often objectified in the sport industry, and judged solely on the way they look, especially now when social media has become more and more mainstream. Discussed in the article Sports Journalism Has A Major Sexual Harassment Problem, women working in the sport industry infrequently report incidents where they have experienced sexual harassment and inappropriate comments throughout their careers due to fear or losing their job.[51] One occupation that frequently experiences sexual harassment in the sport industry are female sport media print professionals.[50] Female sport media print professionals are typically sports editors, sportswriters, sports columnists, and sports reporters.Women working in this sector of the sport industry have reported numerous incidents where they have experienced threatening comments, sexual abuse and harassment, or some form of intimidation.

See also

References

  1. 1 2 Morales, Miguel. "Tennis' Gender Pay Gap Problem Looms On The Sidelines." Forbes. Forbes Magazine, 21 February 2014. Web. 11 March 2015.
  2. ↑ Taylor & Francis.Women underrepresented, sexualized in weekend sports reporting ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 18 September 2013.
  3. ↑ Hardin M, Lynn S, Walsdorf K, Hardin B. The Framing of Sexual Difference in SI for Kids Editorial Photos. Mass Communication & Society [serial online]. Summer2002 2002;5(3):341-359
  4. ↑ https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/29647263
  5. ↑ http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2014/10/06/lse-rugby-club-homophobic-sexist-leaflets_n_5937974.html
  6. ↑ https://theconversation.com/time-to-stop-playing-nice-about-misogyny-in-sports-33047
  7. ↑ https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2014/sep/28/nfl-scandal-american-football-annual-trip-wembley-miami-dolphins-oakland-raiders
  8. ↑ https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013/feb/22/oscar-pistorius-south-africa-war-women
  9. ↑ https://theconversation.com/women-have-the-chance-to-be-more-than-prostitutes-and-wags-at-this-world-cup-27897
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  12. ↑ Sharma, Aalok (May 5, 2016). "U.S. women's soccer issues red card to pay gap". Minnlawyer. Retrieved March 26, 2018.
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  24. 1 2 Daniels, Dayna B. You Throw Like a Girl: Sport and Misogyny on the Silver Screen Film & History (2005): n. pag. Web. 2 March 2015.
  25. ↑ "Women's Sports Foundation." Women's Sports Foundation. Women's Sports Foundation, 18 March 2013. Web. 12 March 2015.
  26. ↑ Messner, Michael. "Reflections on Communication and Sport." Reflections on Communication and Sport. Sage Journals, 30 December 2012. Web. 12 March 2015.
  27. ↑ Woodward, Kath. "Time to Stop Playing Nice about Misogyny in Sports." The Conversation. Arts and Humanities Research Center, 23 October 2014. Web. 4 May 2015. <http://theconversation.com/time-to-stop-playing-nice-about-misogyny-in-sports-33047>
  28. ↑ Fagan, Kate. "RECENT EVENTS EXPOSE SEXISM IN SPORTS CULTURE." ESPN. ESPN Internet Ventures, 14 February 2013. Web. 6 May 2015. <http://espn.go.com/espnw/news-commentary/article/8944124/espnw-recent-events-further-expose-underlying-sexism-sports-culture>.
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  32. ↑ Francombe-Webb, Jessica; Toffoletti, Kim (2018). "Sporting Females: Power, Diversity and the Body." The Palgrave Handbook of Feminism and Sport, Leisure and Physical Education. Palgrave Macmillan, London. p. 46. doi:10.1057/978-1-137-53318-0_4. ISBN 9781137533173.
  33. ↑ Francombe-Webb, Jessica; Toffoletti, Kim (2018). "Sporting Females: Power, Diversity and the Body." The Palgrave Handbook of Feminism and Sport, Leisure and Physical Education. Palgrave Macmillan, London. p. 50. doi:10.1057/978-1-137-53318-0_4. ISBN 9781137533173.
  34. 1 2 Guest, Andrew M., and Anne Luijten. "Fan culture and motivation in the context of successful women’s professional team sports: a mixed-methods case study of Portland Thorns fandom." Sport in Society (2017): 1-18.
  35. ↑ "Title IX." TitleIX.info. Title IX, n.d. Web. 30 March 2015.
  36. ↑ Shelton, Donald E. (2001). "Equally Bad is Not Good: Allowing Title IX "Compliance" by the Elimination of Men's Collegiate Sports". University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform
  37. ↑ "College Wrestling Scholarships." College Wrestling Scholarships. N.p., n.d. Web. 4 May 2015 <http://www.collegesportsscholarships.com/wrestling.htm>
  38. ↑ "The Next Generation of Title IX." Title IX 40 Years and Counting (2012): n. pag. National Women's Law Center. June 2012. Web. 30 March 2015.
  39. ↑ “High School Sports Participation Increases for 28th Straight Year, Nears 8 Million Mark.” NFHS, 6 Sept. 2017, www.nfhs.org/articles/high-school-sports-participation-increases-for-28th-straight-year-nears-8-million-mark/.
  40. ↑ Betsey Stevenson, 2010. "Beyond the Classroom: Using Title IX to Measure the Return to High School Sports," The Review of Economics and Statistics, MIT Press, vol. 92(2), pages 284-301, 08
  41. ↑ Kissane, Rebecca Joyce, and Sarah Winslow. "“You’re Underestimating Me and You Shouldn’t” Women’s Agency in Fantasy Sports." Gender & Society 30.5 (2016): 819-841.
  42. ↑ Senne, Joshua A. (Feb 26, 2016). "Examination of Gender Equity and Female Participation in Sport". The Sport Journal. Retrieved Apr 13, 2018.
  43. ↑ Burton, LJ (2015). "Review: Underrepresentation of women in sport leadership: A review of research". Sports Management Review.
  44. ↑ Lapchick, Richard (2012). "The 2012 Racial and Gender Report Card: College Sport" (PDF). NCAA.
  45. ↑ "Empowering Women in Sports". Feminist Majority Foundation. 1995.
  46. ↑ Morrison, Sara (19 February 2014). "Media is 'failing women' — sports journalism particularly so". Poynter.
  47. ↑ Whisenant, Warren (2015). "Role Congruity Theory: Perceptions of Fairness and Sexism in Sport Management". EconLit.
  48. ↑ Adriaanse, Johanna (2014). "The Impact of Gender Quotas on Gender Equality in Sport Governance" (PDF). Journal of Sports Management.
  49. 1 2 3 Boland, Mary (2005). Sexual Harassment in the Workplace. Sphinx Publications.
  50. 1 2 Pederson, Paul (2014). "Management and Marketing Research An Examination of the Perceptions of Sexual Harassment by Sport Print Media Professionals". Journal of Sport Management.
  51. 1 2 3 Coleburn, Christina. "Sports Journalism Has A Major Sexual Harassment Problem". Slant News. Archived from the original on 7 May 2016.
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  54. ↑ Simmons, Katie (2011). "Women in Top Management Positions in the Sport Industry: Breaking Down the Barriers and Stereotypes". Sport Management Undergraduate.
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