Housing insecurity in the United States

Housing insecurity is the lack of security in an individual shelter that is the result of high housing costs relative to income, poor housing quality, unstable neighborhoods, overcrowding, and/or homelessness.[1]

Definitions

Housing insecurity has been defined in a variety of ways. These methods have included income-based measures to other descriptive thresholds. Here are a few often cited definitions for housing insecurity.

Researchers from the University of Southern California propose an all encompassing measure of housing insecurity that covers a variety of characteristics, including housing instability, housing affordability, housing safety, housing quality, neighborhood safety, neighborhood quality, and homelessness. They define housing instability as households living in overcrowded conditions as per the PSID. Each household head is allocated two rooms, and each additional married couple or single is allocated one room. Finally, one room is allocated for every two children and one bathroom for every four people.[2]

Housing affordability is defined as the ratio of annualized housing costs to annual income. Different income based measures use different thresholds; however most organizations use either the 30% or 50% threshold, meaning that an individual is housing insecure if they spend more than 30% or 50% of their annual income on housing. Housing safety is defined as a housing issue that presents an imminent health threat, such as inadequate heating capacity, faulty foundation, evidence of rodents, exposed electrical and more. Housing quality is defined as housing that is substandard but does not pose an imminent health risk, such as no cooking unit, no hot/cold water, no drinking water, faulty sewage, and more.[3]

Neighborhood safety is defined as living in a neighborhood that presents imminent health threats, such as a factory is located within half a block, unit is in a flood plain, unsatisfactory police presence, and more. Neighborhood quality is defined as households in neighborhoods with undesirable characteristics that do not pose an imminent health risk, such as poor city/county services, unit is boarded up, roads need repairs, no stores within fifteen minutes, and more. Homelessness in the United States is defined as "households who define housing type at the time of interviews as either tent, cave, railroad car, unspecified housing unit, a boat, an RV, or an unoccupied site for a mobile home, trailer or tent." If an individual meets one of the above criteria, then they are considered housing insecure under this definition.[4]

The United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, of which the United States is a signee, includes the right to adequate housing. They define adequate housing as having security of tenure, availability of services, materials, facilities and infrastructure, affordability, habitability, accessibility, location, and cultural adequacy. Many of these tenants are similar to the ones above, such as availability of services (neighborhood quality), affordability, habitability (housing quality and housing safety), and location (neighborhood safety and neighborhood quality).[5]

This definition does introduce some new factors, which are security of tenure, accessibility, and cultural adequacy. The UN defines security of tenure as having tenure security which guarantees legal protection against forced evictions, harassment, and other threats. They define accessibility as taking into account the specific needs of disadvantaged and marginalized groups. They define cultural adequacy as respecting and taking into account the expression of cultural identity. If housing does not meet any of these criteria, it is considerate inadequate, or housing insecure.[6]

Various federal agencies have put forth different definitions of housing insecurity at different times. First, in studying the health effects of housing insecurity, the National Institute of Health has defined housing insecurity as high housing costs in proportion to income, poor housing quality, unstable neighborhoods, overcrowding, or homelessness. All of these factors are similar to those defined above.[7] The Center for Disease Control has used their own definition of housing insecurity to study disease prevention. They studied housing insecurity through a survey question that asks, "How often in the past 12 months would you say you were worried or stressed about having enough money to pay your rent/mortgage? Sometimes, Usually, or always?"[8] The Department of Housing and Urban Development distributes the American Housing Survey that deems that housing units which are affected by any of the descriptors below are considered to be extremely inadequate.[9]

This list includes, "unit does not have hot and cold running water", "unit does not have a bathtub or shower", "unit does not have a flush toilet", "unit shares plumbing facilities", "unit was cold for 24 hours or more and more than two breakdowns of the heating equipment have occurred that lasted longer than 6 hours', "electricity is not used", and the "unit has exposed wiring, not every room has working electrical plugs, and the fuses have blown more than twice." Furthermore, HUD considers housing inadequate if the unit has five or six of the following structural conditions: "unit has had outside water leaks in the past 12 months', "unit has had inside water leaks in the past 12 months', "unit has holes in the floor', "unit has open cracks wider than a dime', "unit has an area of peeling paint larger than 8 by 11 inches', and "rats have been seen recently in the unit."[9]

There have been calls for one unified national definition for housing insecurity, much like there is a definition of food insecurity. Researchers argue that it is difficult to study the effect of housing insecurity because it has been defined in so many different ways. A unified definition of housing insecurity will also help standardize the research on housing insecurity.[10] Furthermore, a working definition for housing insecurity across the federal government could allow individuals who qualify for assistance to know that they qualify.

Rates

The various forms of housing insecurity have been studied in order to find which life circumstances lead families to housing insecurity. Associations between unreliable housing and factors such as race, income, and family type are especially clear. Housing insecure households are likely to consist of unmarried people. 57% of housing insecure households are made up of unmarried individuals that do not have children.[11]

The second largest category is unmarried households with children, which makes up 21% of the distribution. 63% of housing insecure households are extremely low income, which means their annual income is less than the Federal Poverty Level or 30% of the Area Median Income.[12] Most people facing housing insecurity are not seniors and are renters. A lack of education has an especially evident association with housing insecurity. Within housing insecure households, 18% of individuals have a bachelor's or graduate degree, while 50% have no college experience. 55% of housing insecure households are white.[13]

Rates of housing insecurity are fairly consistent across the United States. For the majority of states, between 10% and 15% of households are housing insecure. Wyoming has the least housing insecurity while California and New York have the most housing insecurity; 20% of households face housing insecurity.[13]

In regards to rates of housing inadequacy defined by the American Housing Survey, the number of housing units that were considered extremely inadequate fluctuated between 2005 and 2009.There were 2,021,050 extremely inadequate units that were occupied in 2005, 1,805,960 extremely inadequate units that were occupied in 2007, and 1,863,660 extremely inadequate units that were occupied in 2009. The average number of extremely inadequate units for these three years, 1,896,890 units, amounts to less than 2% of the total number of housing units in the United States. The characteristics that most frequently made units deemed extremely inadequate were shared plumbing facilities (55%) and unacceptably long cold periods (29%). 91.6% of extremely inadequate units experienced only one of the listed qualities of an extremely inadequate unit.[9]

Housing Insecurity by State[13]
State Owned households facing housing security (%) Rented households facing housing insecurity (%) Total housing insecure households (%)
Alabama 9% 26% 14%
Alaska 7% 17% 10%
Arizona 10% 25% 16%
Arkansas 7% 23% 13%
California 12% 29% 20%
Colorado 9% 25% 15%
Connecticut 11% 27% 16%
Delaware 10% 24% 14%
Florida 12% 30% 19%
Georgia 10% 27% 16%
Hawaii 11% 27% 18%
Idaho 7% 23% 12%
Illinois 10% 27% 16%
Indiana 7% 26% 13%
Iowa 6% 23% 11%
Kansas 6% 20% 11%
Kentucky 8% 23% 13%
Louisiana 8% 29% 15%
Maine 9% 24% 14%
Maryland 9% 25% 15%
Massachusetts 11% 26% 16%
Michigan 9% 28% 15%
Minnesota 7% 24% 12%
Mississippi 10% 27% 15%
Missouri 8% 23% 13%
Montana 9% 25% 14%
Nebraska 6% 23% 12%
Nevada 11% 24% 17%
New Hampshire 10% 22% 14%
New Jersey 13% 29% 19%
New Mexico 10% 27% 16%
New York 12% 29% 20%
North Carolina 9% 24% 14%
North Dakota 4% 20% 10%
Ohio 8% 25% 13%
Oklahoma 7% 22% 12%
Oregon 10% 27% 16%
Pennsylvania 9% 27% 14%
Rhode Island 12% 25% 17%
South Carolina 9% 25% 14%
South Dakota 6% 18% 10%
Tennessee 8% 25% 14%
Texas 8% 23% 14%
Utah 7% 21% 12%
Vermont 13% 22% 15%
Virginia 8% 23% 13%
Washington 9% 24% 15%
West Virginia 6% 24% 11%
Wisconsin 9% 23% 14%
Wyoming 5% 17% 9%

Risk factors

Within the last decade, researchers have found negative factors associated with housing insecurity in America. It is important to note that among these studies, many of which are cross-sectional analyses, researchers acknowledge that it is not currently possible to pinpoint the exact causes and effects.[8][14] The absence of a valid measure or universal definition for housing insecurity may be a possible reason for lack of research.[14] Despite these implications with research, findings across the board suggest housing insecurity is a negative risk factor when it pertains to health and educational attainment.

Health

In a study that analyzed data from the 2011 Washington State Behavior Risk Factor Surveillance System, 29.4% of the 8,416 respondents reported being housing insecure.[8] Housing insecure respondents were approximately "twice as likely to report poor or fair health status" compared to those who did not report being housing insecure.[8] Approximately one third of the housing insecure respondents reported delaying doctor visits due to the costs.[8] 26.9% of the housing insecure respondents were current smokers and "26.3% had poor or fair health".[8]

Another cross-sectional analysis focusing on children from low-income households reports similar findings about the association between housing instability and medical care.[15] The study which looks at 12,746 subjects from 2002 National Survey of America's Families data reports that "housing instability was independently associated with postponed medical care, postponed medications, and increased emergency department visits".[15] Researchers note that a possible explanation for these associations may be due to "financial strain" and the need to prioritize other needs such as housing and food.[15] Other health outcomes that have been associated with housing insecurity by past studies include: probable GAD, depression, and PTSD.[14][16]

Education

Evidence suggests there is link between housing insecurity and performance in school. A longitudinal study assessing the academic achievements of children in Minneapolis Public Schools reported that homeless and highly mobile children were "at greater risk for low academic achievement relative to other low-income students as well as more advantaged students."[17] It is unclear if being homeless or highly mobile are short-term or long-term risks due to few longitudinal studies and limited access to the needed data.[18]

Some scholars conclude the aforementioned achievement gaps with homeless and highly mobile students tend to be chronic and "may worsen among older grade cohorts."[17] Highly mobile students were also linked with having "increased rates of grade retention" and more "school-related problems such as expulsion or suspension", compared to other students.[18]

Assistance

One source of assistance is locally located public housing agencies (PHAs) that distribute section 8 vouchers. The vouchers are funded by the U.S. government, specifically the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. These vouchers help low income families or individuals pay for their rent. The PHA determines eligibility based on income, family size and citizenship. Most families that qualify are put on a waitlist, and once they get a voucher, they must be able to find their own housing, and it must meet the safety requirements of the PHA. Once the family meets all the standards, the PHA may partially pay the landlord for the family's rent, requiring the family to pay the difference, or depending on the situation, the PHA may pay for a reasonably priced home.[19]

The National Low Income Housing Coalition (NLIHC) aims to create housing stability in the U.S. by increasing affordable housing and supporting government funded homes. The organization consists of 5 teams: the Research Team, the Policy Team, the Field Team, the Communications Team, and the Administration Team. The Research Team looks at statistics of housing insecurity, and the Policy Team helps inform policy makers about these trends. The Field Team raises awareness and the Communications Team gathers input from the general population about their views of housing insecurity. Finally, the Administration Team oversees the organization and regulates progress. These 5 groups all come together to combat housing insecurity.[20]

Enterprise is another organization that has a plan to end housing insecurity by 2020. Their goal is not only to provide for low income families, but to also improve their psychological and physical well being. They have 5 pillars that they focus on: homes, systems, connections, resources, and foundation. Their objective is to provide affordable housing with systems that will provide equal opportunity for low income families. Enterprise also looks for opportunities to expand resources in the government to help those in need. Enterprise's 5 pillars come together to shape their main goal of becoming the foundation that will be strong enough to end housing insecurity.[21]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Johnson A, Meckstroth A (June 22, 1998). Ancillary services to support welfare to work (Report). Washington, DC: US Dept of Health and Human Services. p. 20–23.
  2. ↑ Cox R, Rodnyansky S, Henwood B, Wenzel S (December 2017). "Measuring Population Estimates of Housing Insecurity in the United States: A Comprehensive Approach". USC Center for Economic and Social Research: 14–16.
  3. ↑ Cox R, Rodnyansky S, Henwood B, Wenzel S (December 2017). "Measuring Population Estimates of Housing Insecurity in the United States: A Comprehensive Approach". USC Center for Economic and Social Research: 14–16.
  4. ↑ Cox R, Rodnyansky S, Henwood B, Wenzel S (December 2017). "Measuring Population Estimates of Housing Insecurity in the United States: A Comprehensive Approach". USC Center for Economic and Social Research: 14–16.
  5. ↑ "Fact Sheet No. 21, The Human Right to Adequate Housing". UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). November 2009.
  6. ↑ "Fact Sheet No. 21, The Human Right to Adequate Housing". UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). November 2009.
  7. ↑ Cutts DB, Meyers AF, Black MM, Casey PH, Chilton M, Cook JT, Geppert J, Ettinger de Cuba S, Heeren T, Coleman S, Rose-Jacobs R, Frank DA (August 2011). "US Housing insecurity and the health of very young children". American Journal of Public Health. 101 (8): 1508–14. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2011.300139. PMC 3134514. PMID 21680929.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Stahre M, VanEenwyk J, Siegel P, Njai R (July 2015). "Housing Insecurity and the Association With Health Outcomes and Unhealthy Behaviors, Washington State, 2011". Preventing Chronic Disease. 12: E109. doi:10.5888/pcd12.140511. PMID 26160295.
  9. 1 2 3 Eggers FJ, Moumen F (March 2013). "American Housing survey: Housing Adequacy and Quality As Measured by the AHS" (PDF). U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development Office of Policy Development and Research.
  10. ↑ O'Campo P, Daoud N, Hamilton-Wright S, Dunn J (5 May 2015). "Conceptualizing Housing Instability: Experiences with Material and Psychological Instability Among Women Living with Partner Violence". Housing Studies. 31 (1): 1–19. doi:10.1080/02673037.2015.1021768.
  11. ↑ "HUD Modifies Extremely-Low Income Definition - NH&RA". NH&RA. 2014-07-09. Retrieved 2018-03-30.
  12. ↑ "HUD Modifies Extremely-Low Income Definition - NH&RA". NH&RA. 2014-07-09. Retrieved 2018-03-30.
  13. 1 2 3 "Enterprise". www.housinginsecurity.org. Retrieved 2018-03-17.
  14. 1 2 3 Rollins C, Glass NE, Perrin NA, Billhardt KA, Clough A, Barnes J, Hanson GC, Bloom TL (10 October 2011). "Housing Instability Is as Strong a Predictor of Poor Health Outcomes as Level of Danger in an Abusive Relationship". Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 27 (4): 623–643. doi:10.1177/0886260511423241.
  15. 1 2 3 Christine M, Gee L, Kushel M (2008). "Associations between Housing Instability and Food Insecurity with Health Care Access in Low-Income Children". Ambulatory Pediatrics. 8 (1): 50–57 – via ProQuest.
  16. ↑ Suglia S, Duarte C, Sandel M (June 7, 2011). "Housing Quality, Housing Instability, and Maternal Mental Health". Journal of Urban Health. 88: 1105–1116 – via Springer Link.
  17. 1 2 Obradović J, Long JD, Cutuli JJ, Chan CK, Hinz E, Heistad D, Masten AS (May 2009). "Academic achievement of homeless and highly mobile children in an urban school district: longitudinal evidence on risk, growth, and resilience". Development and Psychopathology. 21 (2): 493–518. doi:10.1017/S0954579409000273. PMID 19338695.
  18. 1 2 Cutuli JJ, Desjardins CD, Herbers JE, Long JD, Heistad D, Chan CK, Hinz E, Masten AS (2013-05-01). "Academic achievement trajectories of homeless and highly mobile students: resilience in the context of chronic and acute risk". Child Development. 84 (3): 841–57. doi:10.1111/cdev.12013. PMC 3566371. PMID 23110492.
  19. ↑ "HUD.gov / U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)". www.hud.gov. Retrieved 2018-03-30.
  20. ↑ "About Us". National Low Income Housing Coalition. 2011-12-02. Retrieved 2018-03-30.
  21. ↑ "Enterprise 2020 Strategic Plan". March 28, 2014. Retrieved March 13, 2018.
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