Flapping

Flapping or tapping, also known as alveolar flapping, intervocalic flapping, or t-voicing, is a phonological process found in many dialects of English, especially North American English, Australian English and New Zealand English, by which the consonant phoneme /t/ or /d/ placed between vowels is pronounced as a voiced flap under certain conditions. In some cases, the effect is perceived by some listeners as the replacement of a /t/ sound with a /d/ sound; for example, the word butter pronounced with flapping may be heard as "budder".[1] In fact, /t/ and sometimes /d/ are pronounced in such positions as an alveolar flap [ɾ], a sound produced by briefly tapping the alveolar ridge with the tongue. Also, in similar positions, the combination /nt/ may be pronounced with a nasalized flap, making winter sound similar or identical to winner.

The flap is also a variant of /r/ in other varieties such as South African English, Scottish English, and older varieties of Received Pronunciation (see Pronunciation of English /r/).[2]

Terminology

The terms flap and tap are often used synonymously, although some authors make a distinction between them. When the distinction is made, a flap involves a rapid backward and forward movement of the tongue tip, while a tap involves an upward and downward movement.[3] Linguists disagree on whether the sound produced in the present process is a flap or a tap, and by extension on whether it is better called flapping or tapping,[4] while flapping has traditionally been more widely used.[5][6]

Distribution

Flapping is a prominent feature of North American English. Some linguists consider it obligatory for most American dialects to flap /t/ between a stressed and an unstressed vowel.[6][7] In Australian, Cockney and Irish English, and to a lesser extent in Received Pronunciation, flapping is present but more occasional and restricted to /t/.[8]

The exact conditions for flapping in North American English are unknown, although it is widely understood that it occurs in an alveolar stop, /t/ or /d/, when placed between two vowels, provided the second vowel is unstressed (as in butter, writing, wedding, loader).[5][9] Across word boundaries, however, it can occur between any two vowels, provided the second vowel begins a word (as in get over [ɡɛɾˈoʊvɚ]).[5][9] This extends to morphological boundaries within compound words (as in whatever [ˌwʌɾˈɛvɚ]).[10] In addition to vowels, segments that may precede the flap include /r/ (as in party)[7][11] and occasionally /l/ (as in faulty).[12][13] Syllabic /l/ may also follow the flap (as in bottle).[14]

Word-medially, the vowel following the flap must not only be unstressed but also be a reduced one (namely /ə/, morpheme-final or prevocalic /i, oʊ/, or /ɪ/ preceding /ŋ/),[15] so words like botox, retail and latex are not flapped in spite of the primary stress on the first syllables,[7] while pity, motto and Keating can be.[15] The second syllables in the former set of words can thus be considered as having secondary stress.[5]

Word-medial flapping is also prohibited in foot-initial positions. This prevents words such as militaristic, spirantization and Mediterranean from flapping, despite capitalistic and alphabetization, for example, being flapped. This is known as the Withgott effect.[16][17]

Given these intricacies, it is difficult to formulate a phonological rule that accurately predicts flapping.[6] Nevertheless, Vaux (2000) postulates that it applies to alveolar stops:

  • after a sonorant other than l, m, or ŋ, but with restrictions on n;
  • before an unstressed vowel within words, or before any vowel across a word boundary;
  • when not in foot-initial position.[18]

Exceptions include the preposition/particle to and words derived from it, such as today, tonight, tomorrow and together, wherein /t/ may be flapped when intervocalic (as in go to sleep [ˌɡoʊɾəˈslip]).[19] In Australian English, numerals thirteen, fourteen and eighteen are often flapped despite the second vowel being stressed.[20][21]

The cluster /nt/ (but not /nd/) in the same environment as flapped /t/ may also be flapped, mostly resulting in a nasal flap [ɾ̃]. Intervocalic /n/ is also often realized as a nasal flap, so words like winter and winner can become homophonous.[22] According to Wells (1982), in the United States, Southerners tend to pronounce winter and winner identically, while Northerners, especially those from the east coast, tend to retain the distinction, pronouncing winter [ˈwɪɾ̃ɚ] and winner [ˈwɪnɚ].[23] In a limited number of words such as seventy, ninety and carpenter, /nt/ is more frequently pronounced as [nd], retaining /n/ and voicing /t/, although it may still become [ɾ̃] in fast speech.[24][25]

Homophony

Flapping is a specific type of lenition, specifically intervocalic weakening. It leads to the neutralization of the distinction between /t/ and /d/ in appropriate environments, a partial merger of the two phonemes, provided that both /t/ and /d/ are flapped.[4][26] Some speakers, however, flap only /t/ but not /d/.[27] For speakers with the merger, the following utterances sound the same or almost the same:

Homophonous pairs
/-t-, -nt-/ /-d-, -n-/ IPA Notes
at 'emAdamˈæɾəm
at 'emadd 'emˈæɾəm
atomAdamˈæɾəm
atomadd 'emˈæɾəm
banterbannerˈbæɾ̃əɹ
batterbadderˈbæɾəɹ
beatingbeadingˈbiːɾɪ̈ŋ
bettingbeddingˈbɛɾɪ̈ŋ
bitterbidderˈbɪɾəɹ
boatingbodingˈboʊɾɪ̈ŋ, ˈboːɾɪ̈ŋ
buttingbuddingˈbʌɾɪ̈ŋ
cattycaddyˈkæɾi
centersinnerˈsɪɾ̃əɹWith pen–pin merger.
citedsidedˈsaɪɾɪ̈d
coatingcodingˈkoʊɾɪ̈ŋ, ˈkoːɾɪ̈ŋ
cuttlecuddleˈkʌɾəɫ
cuttycuddyˈkʌɾi
debtordeaderˈdɛɾəɹ
don't itdoughnutˈdoʊɾ̃ətWith weak-vowel merger and toe-tow merger.
futilefeudalˈfjuːɾəɫ, ˈfɪuɾəɫWith weak-vowel merger before /l/.
greatergraderˈɡɹeɪɾəɹ, ˈɡɹeːɾəɹ
heartyhardyˈhɑɹɾi
heatedheededˈhiːɾɪ̈dWith meet-meat merger.
hurtingherdingˈhɜɹɾɪ̈ŋWith fern-fir-fur merger.
inter-innerˈɪɾ̃əɹ
jointingjoiningˈdʒɔɪɾ̃ɪ̈ŋ
kittykiddieˈkɪɾi
knottednoddedˈnɒɾɪ̈d
ladderlatterˈlæɾəɹ
literleaderˈliːɾəɹWith meet-meat merger.
mantamannaˈmæɾ̃ə
mantamannerˈmæɾ̃əIn non-rhotic accents.
mantamanorˈmæɾ̃əIn non-rhotic accents.
MartyMardiˈmɑɹɾiIn the term Mardi Gras.
mattermadderˈmæɾəɹ
meant itminuteˈmɪɾ̃ɪ̈tWith pen–pin merger.
metalmedalˈmɛɾəɫ
metalmeddleˈmɛɾəɫ
mettlemedalˈmɛɾəɫ
mettlemeddleˈmɛɾəɫ
mintymanyˈmɪɾ̃iWith pen–pin merger.
mintyminiˈmɪɾ̃i
mintyMinnieˈmɪɾ̃i
neaterkneaderˈniːɾəɹ
neuternuderˈnuːɾəɹ, ˈnjuːɾəɹ, ˈnɪuɾəɹ
otterodderˈɒɾəɹ
paintingpainingˈpeɪɾ̃ɪ̈ŋ
parityparodyˈpæɹəɾiWith weak-vowel merger
pattypaddyˈpæɾi
petalpedalˈpɛɾəɫ
petalpeddleˈpɛɾəɫ
pettlepedalˈpɛɾəɫ
pettlepeddleˈpɛɾəɫ
phantomfan 'emˈfæɾ̃əm
planterplannerˈplæɾ̃əɹ
pottedpoddedˈpɒɾɪ̈d
ratedraidedˈɹeɪɾɪ̈dWith pane-pain merger.
rattleraddleˈɹæɾəɫ
rightingridingˈɹaɪɾɪ̈ŋ
routerruderˈɹuːɾəɹWith yod-dropping after /ɹ/.
Saturdaysadder dayˈsæɾəɹdeɪ
satyrsederˈseɪɾəɹ
seatingseedingˈsiːɾɪ̈ŋWith meet-meat merger.
sent itsenateˈsɛɾ̃ɪ̈t
set itsaid itˈsɛɾɪ̈t
shuttershudderˈʃʌɾəɹ
sightedsidedˈsaɪɾɪ̈d
sitedsidedˈsaɪɾɪ̈d
titletidalˈtaɪɾəɫ
traitortraderˈtɹeɪɾəɹWith pane-pain merger.
Tudortutorˈtuːɾəɹ, ˈtjuːɾəɹ, ˈtɪuɾəɹ
waiterwaderˈweɪɾəɹWith pane-pain merger.
wettingweddingˈwɛɾɪ̈ŋ
winterwinnerˈwɪɾ̃əɹ
whiterwiderˈwaɪɾəɹWith wine–whine merger.
writingridingˈɹaɪɾɪ̈ŋ

In accents characterized by Canadian raising, such words as riding and writing may be flapped yet still distinguished by the quality of the vowel: riding [ˈɹaɪɾɪŋ], writing [ˈɹʌɪɾɪŋ].[28] Vowel duration may also be different, with a longer vowel before /d/ than before /t/, due to pre-fortis clipping.[29]

Other languages

A similar process also occurs in other languages, such as the Western Apache language (and other Southern Athabaskan languages). In Western Apache, intervocalic /t/ similarly is realized as [ɾ] in intervocalic position. The process occurs even between words. However, tapping is blocked when /t/ is the initial consonant of a stem so tapping occurs only when /t/ is stem-internal or in a prefix. Unlike English, tapping is not affected by suprasegmentals (stress or tone). Another important example is Tagalog, where the two phonemes used the same Baybayin character, but was separated into two distinct letters, namely ⟨d⟩ (for [d]) and ⟨r⟩ (for [ɾ]) during its transition into the Spanish-based Latin alphabet. Similarly, some speakers of Finnish flap /d/ to [ɾ].

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ E.g. in Fox (2011:158).
  2. ↑ Ogden (2009), p. 92.
  3. ↑ Ladefoged & Johnson (2010), pp. 175–6.
  4. 1 2 Wells (1982), p. 249.
  5. 1 2 3 4 de Jong (1998), p. 284.
  6. 1 2 3 Shockey (2003), p. 29.
  7. 1 2 3 Goldsmith (2011), p. 191.
  8. ↑ Shockey (2003), p. 30.
  9. 1 2 Goldsmith (2011), pp. 191–2.
  10. ↑ Hualde (2011), p. 2230.
  11. ↑ Hayes (2009), p. 143.
  12. ↑ Boberg (2015), p. 236.
  13. ↑ Jones (2011), p. xi.
  14. ↑ Wells (1982), p. 248.
  15. 1 2 Hayes (1995), pp. 14–5.
  16. ↑ Vaux (2000), p. 5.
  17. ↑ Bérces (2011), pp. 84–9.
  18. ↑ Vaux (2000), pp. 4–5.
  19. ↑ Goldsmith (2011), p. 192.
  20. ↑ Horvath (2004), p. 635.
  21. ↑ Vaux (2000), p. 7.
  22. ↑ Ladefoged & Johnson (2010), pp. 74–5.
  23. ↑ Wells (1982), p. 252.
  24. ↑ Vaux (2000), pp. 6–7.
  25. ↑ Iverson & Ahn (2007), pp. 262–3.
  26. ↑ Hayes (2009), p. 144.
  27. ↑ Wells (1982), p. 250.
  28. ↑ Hayes (2009), pp. 144–6.
  29. ↑ Gussenhoven & Jacobs (2017), p. 217.

References

Bérces, Katalin Balogné (2011). "Weak and semiweak phonological positions in English". Journal of English Studies. 9: 75–96. doi:10.18172/jes.160.
Boberg, Charles (2015). "North American English". In Reed, Marnie; Levis, John M. The Handbook of English Pronunciation. Wiley. pp. 229–250. doi:10.1002/9781118346952.ch13. ISBN 978-1-11831447-0.
de Jong, Kenneth (1998). "Stress-related variation in the articulation of coda alveolar stops: flapping revisited". Journal of Phonetics. 26 (3): 283–310. doi:10.1006/jpho.1998.0077.
Fox, Kirsten (2011). VCE English Language: Exam Guide (2nd ed.). Insight Publications. ISBN 978-1-92141193-9.
Goldsmith, John (2011). "The Syllable". In Goldsmith, John; Riggle, Jason; Yu, Alan C. L. The Handbook of Phonological Theory (2nd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 164–196. doi:10.1002/9781444343069.ch6. ISBN 978-1-4051-5768-1.
Gussenhoven, Carlos; Jacobs, Haike (2017). Understanding Phonology (4th ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-1-35197471-4.
Hayes, Bruce (1995). Metrical Stress Theory: Principles and Case Studies. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-22632104-5.
Hayes, Bruce (2009). Introductory Phonology. Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-8411-3.
Horvath, Barbara M. (2004). "Australian English: phonology". In Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd; Upton, Clive. A Handbook of Varieties of English. Volume 1: Phonology. Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 625–644. doi:10.1515/9783110175325.1.625. ISBN 3-11-017532-0.
Hualde, José Ignacio (2011). "Sound Change". In van Oostendorp, Marc; Ewen, Colin J.; Hume, Elizabeth; Rice, Keren. The Blackwell Companion to Phonology: Volume IV – Phonological Interfaces. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 2214–2235. ISBN 978-1-40518423-6.
Iverson, Gregory K.; Ahn, Sang-Cheol (2007). "English voicing in dimensional theory". Language Sciences. 29 (2–3): 247–269. doi:10.1016/j.langsci.2006.12.012. PMC 2390816.
Jones, Daniel (2011). Roach, Peter; Setter, Jane; Esling, John, eds. Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary (18th ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-052-115255-6.
Ladefoged, Peter; Johnson, Keith (2010). A Course in Phonetics (6th ed.). Wadsworth. ISBN 978-1-42823126-9.
Ogden, Richard (2009). An Introduction to English Phonetics. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-2541-3.
Shockey, Linda (2003). Sound Patterns of Spoken English. Blackwell. ISBN 0-63123079-3.
Vaux, Bert (2000). "Flapping in English" (PDF). Linguistic Society of America. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 June 2001.
Wells, John C. (1982). Accents of English. Volume 1: An Introduction (pp. i–xx, 1–278). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-52129719-2 .
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.