Flaccid paralysis

Flaccid paralysis
Pronunciation
  • /ˈflæksɪd pəˈræləsɪs/
Specialty Neurology Edit this on Wikidata

Flaccid paralysis is an illness characterized by weakness or paralysis and reduced muscle tone without other obvious cause (e.g., trauma).[1] This abnormal condition may be caused by disease or by trauma affecting the nerves associated with the involved muscles. For example, if the somatic nerves to a skeletal muscle are severed, then the muscle will exhibit flaccid paralysis. When muscles enter this state, they become limp and cannot contract. This condition can become fatal if it affects the respiratory muscles, posing the threat of suffocation.[2]

Causes

Polio and other viruses

The term acute flaccid paralysis (AFP) is often used to describe a sudden onset, as might be found with polio.

AFP is the most common sign of acute polio, and used for surveillance during polio outbreaks. AFP is also associated with a number of other pathogenic agents including enteroviruses, echoviruses, West Nile virus, and adenoviruses, among others.[3]

Botulism

The Clostridium botulinum bacteria are the cause of botulism. Vegetative cells of C. botulinum may be ingested. Introduction of the bacteria may also occur via endospores in a wound. When the bacteria are in vivo, they induce flaccid paralysis. This happens because C. botulinum produces a toxin which blocks the release of acetylcholine. Botulism toxin blocks the exocytosis of presynaptic vesicles containing acetylcholine (ACh).[2] When this occurs, the muscles are unable to contract.[4] Other symptoms associated with infection from this neurotoxin include double vision, blurred vision, drooping eyelids, slurred speech, difficulty swallowing, dry mouth, and muscle weakness. Botulism prevents muscle contraction by blocking the release of acetylcholine, thereby halting postsynaptic activity of the neuromuscular junction. If its effects reach the respiratory muscles, then it can cause respiratory failure, leading to death.[5]

Curare

Curare is a poison that comes from a plant grown in the rainforests of South America. The people of South America crush and cook the roots and stems of curare and then mix it with venom from other plants and animals to create a poisonous syrup mixture that they put on the tips of their arrows. This poison has also been used by South Americans to treat madness, dropsy, edema, fever, kidney stones, and bruises.[6] Curare acts as a neuromuscular blocking agent which induces flaccid paralysis. This poison binds to the acetylcholine (ACh) receptors on the muscle, blocking them from binding to ACh. As a result, ACh accumulates within the neuromuscular junction, but since ACh cannot bind to the receptors on the muscle, the muscle cannot be stimulated. This poison must enter the bloodstream for it to work. If curare affects the respiratory muscles, then its effects can become fatal, placing the victim at risk for suffocation.[2]

Other

Flaccid paralysis can be associated with a lower motor neuron lesion. This is in contrast to an upper motor neuron lesion, which often presents with spasticity, although early on this may present with flaccid paralysis.

Included in AFP's list are poliomyelitis (polio), transverse myelitis, Guillain–Barré syndrome, enteroviral encephalopathy,[7] traumatic neuritis, Reye's syndrome, etc.

An AFP surveillance programme is conducted to increase case yield of poliomyelitis. This includes collection of 2 stool samples within 14 days of onset of paralysis and identification of virus, and control of the outbreak and strengthening immunization in that area.

Historical records from the 1950s, modern CDC reports, and recent analysis of patterns in India suggest that flaccid paralysis may be caused in some cases by oral polio vaccinations.[8][9][10]

Venomous snakes that contain neurotoxic venom such as kraits, mambas, and cobras can also cause complete flaccid paralysis.[11] Some chemical warfare nerve agents such as VX can also cause complete flaccid paralysis.[12]

References

  1. ↑ Alberta Government Health and Wellness (2005) Acute Flaccid Paralysis Public Health Notifiable Disease Management Guidelines.
  2. 1 2 3 Saladin, Kenneth S. Anatomy & Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function. McGraw-Hill. 6th Edition. 2012.
  3. ↑ Kelly H, Brussen KA, Lawrence A, Elliot E, Pearn J, Thorley B (June 2006). "Polioviruses and other enteroviruses isolated from faecal samples of patients with acute flaccid paralysis in Australia, 1996-2004". Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health. 42 (6): 370–6. doi:10.1111/j.1440-1754.2006.00875.x. PMID 16737480.
  4. ↑ "Disease Listing, Botulism, General Information - CDC Bacterial, Mycotic Diseases".
  5. ↑ "flaccid paralysis - definition of flaccid paralysis in the Medical dictionary - by the Free Online Medical Dictionary, Thesaurus and Encyclopedia". Medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com. Retrieved 2014-02-26.
  6. ↑ "Curare - Chondrodendron tomentosum". Blueplanetbiomes.org. Retrieved 2014-02-26.
  7. ↑ Idris M, Elahi M, Arif A (Jan–Mar 2007). "Guillain Barre syndrome: the leading cause of acute flaccid paralysis in Hazara division". Journal of Ayub Medical College, Abbottabad. 19 (1): 26–8. PMID 17867475.
  8. ↑ "Public Health Dispatch: Acute Flaccid Paralysis Associated with Circulating Vaccine-Derived Poliovirus --- Philippines, 2001. MMWR. October 12, 2001 / 50(40);874-5". www.cdc.gov.
  9. ↑ Dissolving Illusions: Diseases. Vaccines and the Forgotten History. Suzanne Humphries MD and Roman Bystrianyk. 2013.
  10. ↑ Vashisht, Neetu; Puliyel, Jacob; Sreenivas, Vishnubhatla (February 2015). "Trends in Nonpolio Acute Flaccid Paralysis Incidence in India 2000 to 2013". Pediatrics.
  11. ↑ GJ Müller; H Modler; CA Wium; DJH Veale; C J Marks (October 2012). "Snake bite in southern Africa: diagnosis and management". CME. 30 (10): 362–381. Retrieved 2 March 2015.
  12. ↑ Sidell, Frederick R. (1997). "Chapter 5: Nerve Agents" (PDF). Medical Aspects of Chemical and Biological Warfare. p. 144ff.

Further reading

  • "Progress towards poliomyelitis eradication, Nepal, 1996-1999". Relevé Épidémiologique Hebdomadaire / Section D'hygiène Du Secrétariat De La Société Des Nations = Weekly Epidemiological Record / Health Section of the Secretariat of the League of Nations. 74 (42): 349–53. October 1999. PMID 10895300.
  • . Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). "Acute flaccid paralysis syndrome associated with West Nile virus infection--Mississippi and Louisiana, July-August 2002". MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. 51 (37): 825–8. September 2002. PMID 12353741.
  • Sejvar JJ, Leis AA, Stokic DS, Van Gerpen JA, Marfin AA, Webb R, Haddad MB, Tierney BC, Slavinski SA, Polk JL, Dostrow V, Winkelmann M, Petersen LR (July 2003). "Acute flaccid paralysis and West Nile virus infection". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 9 (7): 788–93. doi:10.3201/eid0907.030129. PMC 3023428. PMID 12890318.
  • Saeed M, Zaidi SZ, Naeem A, Masroor M, Sharif S, Shaukat S, Angez M, Khan A (2007). "Epidemiology and clinical findings associated with enteroviral acute flaccid paralysis in Pakistan". BMC Infectious Diseases. 7: 6. doi:10.1186/1471-2334-7-6. PMC 1804272. PMID 17300736.
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